AN 


OUTLINE     HISTORY 


OF 


JAPANESE  EDUCATION; 

PREPARED  FOR  THE 

PHILADELPHIA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION, 

1876, 

BY  THE 

JAPANESE   DEPARTMENT   OF   EDUCATION. 


NEW  YORK: 

D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549    &    551    BROADWAY. 

1876. 


\      AMERICAN  BOARD  OF  COMMISSIONERS 

FC 
FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


PREFACE. 


THE  compilation  of  the  following  chapters  on  education  in 
Japan  was  undertaken  as  a  part  of  the  exhibit  of  the  Japanese 
Government  at  the  International  Exhibition  in  Philadelphia. 
They  were  designed  to  accompany  and  in  part  to  explain  the 
collection  of  articles  contributed  by  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion. The  task  of  collecting  from  scattered  and  obscure  sources 
these  records  of  educational  progress,  and  of  selecting  from 
them  what  might  interest  the  foreign  reader,  has  not  been  ac- 
complished without  some  difficulty.  The  early  introduction  of 
letters  into  a  country,  the  foundation  of  schools,  the  encour- 
agement of  education  by  the  Government,  the  growth  of  litera- 
ture and  a  literary  class,  and,  above  all,  the  diffusion  of  learning 
among  the  people,  are,  to  those  who  desire  to  understand  its 
civilization,  important  subjects  of  inquiry.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
account  here  given  in  regard  to  the  progress  and  prevalence  of 
education  in  Japan  may  not  be  without  interest,  even  to  those 
favored  Western  nations  whose  science  and  culture  have  given 
them  their  preeminence. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  following  material  so  many  per- 
sons have  been  engaged,  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  due  credit  to 
all.  In  addition  to  those  mentioned  below,  it  is  proper  to  ac- 
knowledge in  this  connection  the  aid  of  the  distinguished  Jap- 


4  PREFACE. 

anese  scholar,  Rev.  G.  F.  Verbeck,  D..  D.,  whose  services  to 
education  in  Japan  are  well  known,  who  has  revised  the  trans- 
lations of  nearly  all  the  chapters. 

The  introductory  chapter  was  prepared  by  David  Murray, 
LL.  D.,  the  Foreign  Superintendent  of  Education  in  Japan,  who 
has  also  exercised  editorial  supervision  over  the  publication. 

Chapters  I.  to  IV.,  comprising  an  account  of  the  introduc- 
tion and  progress  of  education,  were  compiled  by  Otzuki  Sinji, 
with  the  aid  of  Naka  Michitaka,  and  translated  by  Okkotsu 
Tarotsu. 

Chapters  V.  and  VI.  were  compiled  by  Sakakibara  Yosino, 
and  translated  by  Suzuki  Tada-ichi  and  Okkotsu  Tarotsu. 

The  Chronicle  of  Events  composing  Appendix  II.  was  pre- 
pared by  Tsumagi  Yorinori,  secretary  to  the  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation. 

Two  explanations  are  necessary  to  the  reader : 

1.  In  the  following  pages  the  Japanese  names  are  printed  in 
the  customary  Japanese  order ;  that  is,  the  family  name  stands 
first,  and  the  individual  name,  corresponding  to  the  Christian 
name  in  English,  follows. 

2.  In  translating  Japanese  words  into  English,  we  have  fol- 
lowed  the  system  now  usually  employed   by  Anglo-Japanese 
scholars :  that  is,  the  consonant-sounds  are  represented  by  cor- 
responding   English   consonants ;    and    the   vowel-sounds   are 
represented  by  the  vowels  taken  with  their  Italian  pronuncia- 
tion, viz.,  a  as  in  father,  e  like  ey  in  they,  /  as  in  machine,  o  as 
in  note,  u  as  in  rural.     With  this  key  it  will  not  be  difficult  for 
the  foreigner  in  most  cases  to  obtain  an  approximately  correct 
pronunciation. 

PHILADELPHIA,  August,  1876. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  .......       g 

Introduction  of  Learning           .....  IO 

The  Great  Schools  of  Old  Japan     .            .            .            .  .11 

School-Life  in  Old  Japan           .            .            ..           .            .  12 

Modern  Education  .......       16 

Origin  of  the  Department  of  Education           .            .            .  17 

System  of  Administration   .            .            .            .            .  .18 

Organization  of  the  Department  of  Education            .            .  18 

Elementary  Schools             .            .            .            .            .  .20 

Normal  Schools              ......  23 

Foreign-Language  Schools  .            .            .            .            .  .26 

University  of  Tokio      ......  29 

Professional  and  Technical  Institutions      .            .  .31 

Miscellaneous  Educational  Agencies    ....  32 

Books  and  Newspapers        .            .            .            .            .  .32 

Libraries  and  Museums             .            .            .            ,            ..  34 

CHAPTER  I. — GENERAL  SKETCH  .           .           .          .           .  .36 

First  Establishment  of  Educational  Institutions         .            .  38 

Foundation  of  Educational  Institutions  in  Kioto  .            .  .41 

Works  on  Law  and  History      .....  42 

*       Decline  of  Learning             .             .             .             .             .  •       44 

About  the  Old  Libraries  and  Schools  ....  45 

Schools  of  Daimios  and  Private  Schools     .             .            .  .46 

Modern  School  System              .            .            ,            .            .  47 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  II. — EDUCATION  IN  THE  EARLY  AGES          .  .  .48 

Origin  of  Characters  and  Books  ....  48 

Introduction  of  Learning,  Arts,  and  Laws  .  .  -SO 

Origin  and  Organization  of  Institutions  for  Education,  Astronomy, 

Medicine,  etc.          ......  54 

Support  of  Educational  Institutions,  and  Rewards  to  Professors  .       61 
Regulations  of  the  University  .  .  .  67 

Regulations  of  Provincial  Schools  .  .  .  .  •       73 

Educational  Institutions  and  Libraries  at  Kioto  .  .  78 

CHAPTER  III. — EDUCATION  UNDER  THE  SHOGUNATE  . 

Literary  Institutions      ...... 

Rise  of  the  Literary  Profession       .... 

Astronomical  Institutions          ..... 

Medical  Schools       ...... 

Si         A  School  of  Japanese  Language  and  Literature 

Early  Foreign  Scholars         ..... 

Foreign  Medical  Science  .  .  . 

Printing  under  the  Shoguns  .... 

Provincial  and  Private  Schools  .... 

CHAPTER  IV. — EDUCATION  SINCE  THE  REVOLUTION    . 

A  Year-Period  adopted  ..... 

First  Educational  Measures  ..... 

Reestablishment  of  the  University  at  Kioto    .  .  . 

Publication  of  Newspapers,  etc.     ..... 

Educational  Regulations          ..... 

Revision  of  the  Educational  System          .... 

Establishment  of  a  Department  of  Education  . 

An  Embassy  to  Foreign  Countries  .... 

Code  of  Education       .  .  .  . 

Schedules  for  Elementary  and  Higher  Schools 
Tokio  Public  Library   .  .  .  .  . 

Development  of  the  Institutions  of  Tokio  .  .  . 

Additional  Normal  and  Foreign-Language  Schools    .  . 


CONTENTS.  ]  7 

PAGE 

Classification  of  Schools    .  .  .  .  .  .129 

First  Report  presented  to  the  Emperor  ...  130 

Female  Normal  School      ......     130 


CHAPTER  V. — JAPANESE  LANGUAGE  AND  LEARNING          .  . 

Origin  of  Japanese  Written  Characters      .... 

The  Japanese  Syllabary  ..... 

Written  Characters  of  the  Legendary  Age  .  .  . 

Pure  Japanese  Characters         ..... 

Composition  ....... 

Metrical  Composition  ...... 

Chinese  Composition  (Kambun)     ..... 

Confucian  Learning  (Jugaku)  .  .  .  .  . 

Schools        ........ 

Private  Schools  ...... 

Examinations  and  Classification  of  Honors  .  .  . 

Penmanship  (Shogaku) ...... 

CHAPTER  VI.— JAPANESE  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES  .           .           .           .  154 

Drawing  and  Painting  .             .             .            •            .            «  154 

The  Medical  Art 155 

Materia  Medica            .             .             .             •             •            .        .  158 

Surgery       .....»••  *59 

Doctors  of  Acupuncture                       .            •            •            •  J59 

Calendrography       .             ...•••  *OO 

Chronometry     .....•»  »1 
Kami,  or  Riyoshi  (Japanese  Paper)            .            .            .            .162 

Plants  used  in  the  Manufacture  of  Paper         ...  163 

The  Manufacture  of  Paper             .....  168 

The  Japanese  Pencil,  or  Writing-brush           .            .            .  168 

Inkstone      ....••••  X7° 

Materials  for  Inkstone  ....             •            •  *7* 

Japanese  Ink           ...»•••  *73 
The  Engraving  of  Books         .            .            •            •            .175 


8  CONTENTS. 

APPENDIX. 

PACK 

I.  Constitution  of  the  Japanese  Department  of  Education      .  .     177 

II.  Chronicle  of  Events  in  the  Recent  History  of  the  Department  of 

Education      .  .  .  .  .  .  .179 

III.  List  of  Emperors         .......     187 

IV.  List  of  Year-Periods         ......  iSS 

V.  Catalogue  of  the  Articles  exhibited  by  the  Japanese  Department  of 

Education         .......        191 


AN    OUTLINE    HISTORY 


OF 


EDUCATION      IN     JAPAN 


INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER. 

THE  early  history  of  education  and  literature  in  Japan,  as  in  all 
other  countries,  is  obscure  and  uncertain.  In  the  chapters  which  fol- 
low, an  honest  and  an  earnest  effort  has  been  made,  by  competent  Jap- 
anese scholars,  to  compile,  from  all  available  sources,  an  outline  account 
of  the  various  steps  of  progress  which  have  been  taken,  down  to  the 
present  time. 

To  the  Japanese  student,  and  to  those  who  are  interested  in  search- 
ing- into  the  foundations  of  Japanese  civilization,  these  annals  must  pre- 
sent material  of  the  greatest  interest  and  importance. 

In  the  present  introductory  chapter  it  is  proposed  to  give  a  summary 
statement  of  the  system  of  education  as  it  existed  before  the  recent 
revolution,  and  also  of  the  new  system  which  has  been  organized  and 
is  now  in  successful  operation. 

In  the  theory  of  the  Japanese  government,  the  final  and  absolute 
authority  is  vested  in  a  sovereign  ruler  called  the  Mikado.  An  unbroken 
line  of  these  sovereigns  is  traced  back  in  Japanese  history  to  about  660 
B.  C.  Penal  laws,  imperial  edicts,  and  administrative  regulations,  were 
all  supposed  to  emanate  from  the  sovereign.  From  about  the  twelfth 
century,  however,  owing  to  internal  and  external  commotions,  the  act- 
ual duty  of  repressing  tumults  and  executing  justice  upon  rebellious 
subjects  was  intrusted  to  a  generalissimo  of  the  imperial  forces  known 
as  the  shogim?  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  this  office 

1  In  the  early  treaties  and  diplomatic  correspondence  he  is,  under  a  misconception,  called 
Tycoon. 


I0  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

fell  into  the  hands  of  a  member  of  the  Tokugawa  family,  in  which  it 
subsequently  became  hereditary,  and  so  continued  down  to  1867,  when 
the  incumbent  resigned  the  office  into  the  hands  of  the  mikado. 
During  this  period  of  the  Tokugawa  power,  lasting  more  than  two 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  the  entire  executive  authority  of  the  govern- 
ment was  exercised  by  the  shogun.  He  did  not,  however,  assume 
independent  sovereign  power,  but  continued  to  act  nominally  as  the 
representative  and  servant  of  the  mikado. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  the  feudal  system  attained  its  highest 
development  in  Japan.  The  ancient  territorial  nobles,  who  were  for- 
merly almost  independent  sovereigns  in  their  territories,  were  reduced 
to  subjection,  and  became  vassal  princes  under  the  shogun.  New 
and  conquered  provinces  were  parceled  out  to  the  connections  of  the 
shogun's  family ;  so  that,  at  the  time  of  the  making  of  the  foreign 
treaties,  there  were  about  two  hundred  of  these  princes,  who,  under  the 
name  of  daimios,  exercised  in  their  provinces  local  authority,  and  yielded 
to  the  shogun,  as  their  superior  lord,  feudal  obedience. 

Introduction  of  Learning. — The  first  steps  in  education  in  the  em- 
pire were  taken  before  the  period  of  the  shogunate.  China  and  Corea 
were  in  this  particular,  as  in  many  others,  the  source  from  which  they 
derived  their  first  seeds  of  learning.  As  early  as  A.  D.  300,  there  are 
accounts  of  Corean  and  Chinese  scholars  being  brought  over  to  teach 
a  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  alphabet  and  Chinese  books  to  the  Japan- 
ese imperial  court.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that,  previous  to  the 
introduction  of  Chinese,  no  alphabetical  writing  existed  in  Japan.  The 
alphabet  of  forty-eight  characters,  known  as  the  Japanese  i-ro-ha, 
which  is  used  in  the  simpler  styles  of  writing,  is  now  considered  to  have 
been  the  modification  and  simplification  of  certain  familiar  Chinese 
characters.  The  sounds  given  to  the  Chinese  characters,  when  first  in- 
troduced, were  an  attempt  at  an  imitation  of  the  original  pure  sounds 
as  used  in  the  north  of  China  ;  but  gradually,  under  the  influence  of  the 
native  speech,  they  became  corrupted  and  modified,  until  they  could 
only  be  understood  by  sight  and  not  by  the  ear. 

The  first  teachers  employed  were  brought  over  from  Corea   and 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  H 

China ;  but  subsequently  native  scholars  who  had  been  educated  in 
China  were  able  to  take  their  places,  and  gradually  there  grew  up  in 
connection  with  the  Imperial  Government  a  system  of  education  which 
differed  widely  from  its  prototype,  but  was  so  far  fitted  to  the  wants  of 
the  Japanese  Empire  as  to  secure  not  only  its  stability  through  many 
centuries,  but  a  high  degree  of  culture  and  civilization. 

The  primary  object  aimed  at  in  the  education  of  this  period,  which 
may  be  termed  the  "  middle  ages  "  of  Japan,  was  not  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  all  classes  of  people.  This  is  a  conception  of  recent 
origin  even  in  Western  countries.  The  object  sought  was,  by  means  of 
special  training,  to  prepare  men  to  enter  the  service  of  the  Government. 
For  this  purpose,  an  institution  which  we  may  call  a  university  was  estab- 
lished at  the  capital  of  the  empire.  It  had  branches  also  in  the  various 
principal  provinces,  which  were  tributary  to  the  central  institution.  The 
subjects  of  instruction  were,  in  the  higher  departments,  chiefly  the  Chi- 
nese classical  writings,  which  were  read  and  studied  by  the  pupils,  and 
commented  upon  by  learned  professors.  Special  branches  of  learning 
which  were  required  in  the  public  service  were  established  as  depart- 
ments of  this  university.  The  care  of  the  calendar,  and  the  regulation 
of  the  lunar  year  with  its  varying  months,  were  confided  to  a  special 
department,  which  was  responsible  for  the  preparation  of  the  national 
almanac.  Astrology,  used  for  the  divination  of  the  future,  and  medicine, 
treated  in  its  various  branches,  in  accordance  with  the  Chinese  system, 
were  each  constituted  departments. 

This  university  was  supported  by  the  Imperial  Government,  by 
means  of  grants  of  land,  and  by  assessments  upon  certain  provinces. 
It  passed  through  many  periods  of  trial  and  at  last  perished,  but,  as 
the  parent  institution  of  the  many  which  sprang  up  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  it  had  great  influence  upon  the  educational  interests  ot 
Japan. 

The  Great  Schools  of  Old  "Japan. — The  founder  of  the  Tokugawa 
dynasty  of  shoguns  was  a  liberal  patron  of  learning,  and  did  much  to 
encourage  the  organization  of  schools  and  libraries.  He  established  at 
his  capital,  in  Yedo,  a  college  which  attained  great  celebrity,  and  was 


I2  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

attended  by  more  than  three  thousand  pupils.  It  was  dedicated  to  the 
honor  of  the  Chinese  philosopher  Confucius.  The  memorial  temple  and 
the  statues  of  Confucius  and  his  disciples  are  still  shown,  as  objects  of 
interest  to  those  who  visit  the  capital. 

Other  institutions  of  a  like  character  were  founded  by  several  of  the 
more  powerful  daimios  in  their  provinces.  The  Daimios  of  Mito,  Sat- 
suma,  Owari,  Hizen.  Chosiu,  Yechizen,  and  others,  vied  with  each  other 
in  maintaining,  for  the  benefit  of  their  subjects,  institutions  of  the  high- 
est character.  These  institutions  were,  however,  designed  solely  for  the 
use  of  the  "  samurai "  class,  i.  e.,  those  who  held  feudal  relations  as 
military  retainers  to  their  masters.  The  children  of  the  common  people 
were  not  provided  for  in  government  schools.  The  education  they  re- 
ceived was  at  private  schools,  or  by  private  teachers.  And  it  speaks 
well  for  the  intelligence  and  love  of  learning  on  the  part  of  the  mer- 
chants, farmers,  and  artisans,  that,  even  under  these  unfavorable  circum- 
stances, the  vast  proportion  of  them  could  read  and  write  the  simpler 
forms  of  the  language,  and  could  cast  up  their  accounts  on  the  counting- 
frame.  The  women  also  were  not  educated  at  the  great  national  schools, 
but  were  taught  in  private  schools,  or  by  tutors  employed  specially  for 
their  instruction.  The  education  of  females  was  less  extensive  and 
thorough  than  that  designed  for  boys.  They  learned  to  read  books  in 
the  easier  styles,  but  were  not  generally  taught  the  Chinese  classical 
authors.  They  could  write  and  play  upon  some  musical  instruments, 
and  were  taught  female  accomplishments  in  the  line  of  sewing,  embroid- 
ery, etc.  There  were,  however,  some  notable  exceptions  to  this  limited 
female  education.  Female  scholars  of  great  celebrity  appeared  from 
time  to  time,  and  not  a  few  of  the  most  famous  names  in  literature  are 
those  of  females. 

'School-Life  in  Old  Japan. — The  school-life  of  the  "samurai" 
boy  began  when  he  was  about  six  years  of  age.  His  first  task  was  to 
make  after  a  copy,  in  weary  routine,  the  Japanese  letters.  He  used  at 
first  a  brush  as  large  as  one's  little  finger,  so  that  every  defect  of  his 
execution  would  be  plainly  manifest.  The  master  sat  by  him  and 
directed  his  movements.  Every  one  of  the  complicated  letters  was 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !3 

required  to  be  made  with  the  strokes  in  the  same  order,  and  with  the 
same  emphasis.  As  the  cost  of  paper  would  be  a  serious  burden,  they 
were  required  to  use  the  same  sheets  many  times  over.  The  letters  of 
one  day  were  smeared  out  at  its  close,  and  the  papers  dried  in  the  sun 
for  the  next.  As  you  pass  along  the  streets  of  a  Japanese  town  you 
may  still  see  the  schoolboy's  copy-book  hung  out  to  dry,  and  the 
schoolboy  himself  you  can  always  detect  in  his  homeward  march  from 
school  by  his  smouched  fingers  and  face,  which  have  received  more 
than  their  share  of  the  writer's  ink. 

At  the  lowest  estimate  a  schoolboy  was  required  to  learn  one  thou- 
sand different  characters.  In  the  Government  elementary  schools  at 
the  present  time  about  three  thousand  characters  are  taught.  A  man 
laying  any  claim  to  scholarship  knows  eight  or  ten  thousand  characters ; 
and  those  who  pass  for  men  of  great  learning  are  expected  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  many  tens  of  thousands. 

These  characters  have  each  their  distinct  meaning,  so  that  the 
learner  has  not  merely  to  learn  the  mechanical  act  of  making  it,  but 
also  its  meaning  and  its  proper  place  and  use  in  a  sentence.  Many 
years  of  the  boy's  life  are  mainly  spent  in  this  task  of  learning  to  write 
and  to  use  the  numerous  letters  of  his  alphabet.  The  earlier  reading- 
books  were  the  simpler  Chinese  classics,  in  which  the  boy  was  taught 
the  sounds  of  the  characters  as  well  as  their  meaning.  As  he  advanced, 
more  difficult  books  were  used,  and  he  was  exercised,  not  only  in  read- 
ing the  passages,  but  also  in  explaining  their  meaning  in  the  ordinary 
colloquial  style. 

Books  on  manners  and  etiquette  and  morals  were  also  used  for 
reading,  and  were  made  the  text-books  for  instruction  in  those  branches 
of  education.  Up  to  nine  years  of  age  they  read  without  much  refer- 
ence to  meaning,  and  committed  to  memory  some  of  the  standard 
specimens  of  poetry.  The  following  were  the  standard  works  for 
early  reading : 

1.  Kokio  (The  Classic  of  Filial  Piety). 

2.  Toshishen  (Select  Poetry  of  the  Tung  Dynasty),  four  vols. 

3.  Kobun  (New  Treasures  from  Old  Literature),  two  vols. 


14  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

At  about  nine  years  of  age  the  boys  who  were  to  receive  a  higher 
education  entered  the  Chinese  Classical  Department.  In  this  they 
were  chiefly  occupied  with  the  study  of  the  various  treatises  on  Chinese 
philosophy.  The  following  works,  usually  taken  in  about  this  order, 
were  considered  essential ;  but  others  were  added  ad  libitum  for  pri- 
vate reading  and  for  special  study : 

1.  Shogaku  (Lesser  Learning)  ;  simple  maxims  of  the  sages. 

2.  Daigaku  (Great  Learning)  ;  a  collection  of  maxims. 

3.  Kongo  (Discourses  of  Confucius  and  his  Disciples),  four  vols. 

4.  Moshi  (Discourses  of  Mencius),  four  vols. 

5.  Chiu-yo  (The  Golden  Mean)  ;  a  treatise  on  the  conduct  of  human 
life. 

6.  Nippon  Gaishi  (A  History  of  Japan,  by  Raisanyo). 

7.  Dai-Nipponshi  (A  History  of  Japan  prepared  under  the  Daimio 
of  Mito). 

8.  Shikio  (Book  of  Collected  Odes),  two  vols. 

9.  Shokio  (Record  of  Classical  History),  two  vols. 

10.  Shunjiu  (Annals  of  the  Shu  Dynasty  by  Confucius),  two  vols. 

11.  Reiki  (Ritual  of  the  Shu  Dynasty),  four  vols. 

12.  Yeki  (Book  of  Changes),  two  vols. 

13.  Saden  (Commentary  on  the  Annals  of  the  Shu  Dynasty),  four- 
teen vols. 

14.  Shiki  (Chinese  Biographies),  twenty-two  vols. 

15.  Zenkanjio  (Record  of  the  Kan  Dynasty),  fifty-one  vols. 

1 6.  Gokangio  (Record  of  the  second  Kan  Dynasty),  fifty  vols. 

17.  Shiji-tokan  (Principles  of  Government),  thirty  vols. 

1 8.  Tokanko-moku  (Political  History),  one  hundred  vols.,  etc.,  etc. 
From  this  formidable  list  of  text-books  it  is  plain  that  the  life  of  the 

Japanese  college-student  was  not  an  easy  one.  In  some  schools  the 
course  of  study  was  not  limited  to  a  definite  time,  but  continued  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  scholar.  Hence  men  frequently  continued  their  studies 
to  mature  years,  like  the  fellows  of  an  English  university.  The  daily 
exercises  began  at  about  seven  or  eight  o'clock,  and  continued  until 
about  four.  There  was  no  vacation  except  for  fifteen  days  at  each  of 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  ^ 

the  equinoxes,  when  the  festivals  in  honor  of  Confucius  were  celebrated, 
and  on  the  prescribed  local  and  national  holidays. 

The  daily  routine  of  a  Japanese  classical  school  such  as  above 
described  would  be  about  as  follows :  At  the  opening  the  students  all 
assembled,  say  to  the  number  of  three  or  four  hundred,  in  a  large  as- 
sembly-room. Here  a  professor  gave  a  lecture  to  the  whole  body  of 
students  on  some  passage  selected  from  one  of  the  Chinese  classics. 
The  lecture  consisted  of  explanations  and  comments  on  the  selected 
passages,  and  of  exhortations  to  the  young  men  to  conduct  their  lives 
accordingly.  Each  student  was  required  to  have  a  copy  of  the  book  in 
his  hand,  and  to  follow  the  citations  and  comments  of  the  professor. 

After  this  general  lecture  the  students  retired  to  separate  class- 
rooms, and  there  under  subordinate  teachers  read  over  the  works  enu- 
merated as  text-books.  They  were  required  to  explain  the  meaning, 
and  to  answer  questions  to  their  teacher.  On  certain  days,  also,  they 
drew  lots  to  deliver  discourses  upon  some  previously-assigned  passage. 
The  professors  and  teachers  were  held  in  the  greatest  reverence,  and  it 
was  deemed  the  gravest  offense  for  the  scholars  to  show  their  impa- . 
tience  or  their  lack  of  interest,  by  yawning,  or  lounging,  or  moving  their 
positions.  Perhaps  to  this  early  severe  training,  carried  on  through 
many  generations,  are  due  that  wonderful  imperturbability  of  temper  and 
that  courtesy  of  manner  which  characterize  the  higher  classes  of  Japan. 

Following  these  exercises  were  others  for  teaching  them  composi- 
tion, and  giving  them  practice  in  the  art  of  writing.  Official  letter- 
writing  was  an  object  of  special  training,  and  was  carried  on  through 
many  years.  In  a  country  where  rank  and  etiquette,  and  the  proper 
observance  of  official  forms,  were  deemed  of  the  last  importance,  this 
branch  of  education  was  necessarily  one  not  to  be  neglected.  The  finer 
styles  of  literary  composition  were  matters  of  ambition  with  those  who 
desired  the  highest  culture.  They  were  taught  to  write  poetry,  not  only 
in  the  Japanese  tongue,  but  also  in  pure  Chinese.  To  this  day  it  is  a 
social  amusement  among  their  men  of  culture  to  turn  off  impromptu 
verses,  or  compose  elegant  maxims.  It  is  a  fair  criticism  on  the  system, 
that  time  was  spent  on  the  comparatively  useless  accomplishment  of 


1 6  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

versification,  which  ought  to  have  been  employed  in  increasing  their 
knowledge  and  in  improving  their  prose  composition. 

The  latter  part  of  the  day  was  spent  in  physical  exercises.  As  these 
schools  were  for  the  benefit  of  the  military  class,  the  students  were 
trained  in  martial  exercises,  such  as  shooting  with  the  bow  and  arrow, 
throwing  the  lance,  running,  riding  on  horseback,  and  sword-exercise. 

Modern  Education. — The  first  seeds  of  a  reformation  in  the  educa- 
tional system  of  Japan  were  sown  while  the  Dutch  held  the  monopoly 
of  trade  at  Nagasaki.  A  considerable  number  of  the  Japanese  learned 
to  speak  and  to  read  the  Dutch  language  ;  and,  although  the  Govern- 
ment discountenanced  the  introduction  of  foreign  ideas  and  foreign 
books,  yet  both  of  them  slowly  percolated  into  the  empire. 

The  influence  of  Dutch  learning  is  plainly  traceable,  especially  in 
the  direction  of  medical  science.  At  the  time  of  the  advent  of  Commo- 
dore Perry,  in  1853,  a  very  perceptible  advance  had  been  made  out  of  the 
old  Chinese  medical  system  into  the  more  rational  one  of  Europe. 

But  it  is  only  since  the  country  has  been  open  by  treaty  to  foreign 
trade  and  foreign  intercourse  that  the  influence  of  Western  learning  has 
really  begun  to  affect  the  national  life.  The  conflicts  in  which  the  coun- 
try was  plunged  over  the  question  of  foreign  intercourse  led  them  to 
investigate  for  themselves  the  points  in  which  Western  civilization  was 
superior  to  their  own.  They  could  not  resist  the  arguments  which 
were  supplied  to  them  in  the  form  of  powerful  ships  with  their 
destructive  armaments,  the  knowledge  of  military  and  naval  science 
displayed  by  the  strangers,  the  many  strange  and  useful  articles  of 
manufacture  which  they  brought,  and  the  superior  knowledge  they  dis- 
played in  regard  to  geography,  astronomy,  navigation,  and  medicine. 

They  made  early  efforts,  therefore,  to  remedy  their  deficiencies  in 
these  particulars.  They  engaged  from  France  a  commission  of  mili- 
tary officers  to  instruct  them  in  the  modes  of  warfare  in  Europe  ;  they 
purchased  vessels,  and  engaged  skilled  persons  to  teach  them  how  to 
manage  them  ;  they  bought  foreign  arms  and  ammunition  for  the  use 
of  their  reorganized  troops ;  they  took  every  opportunity  to  study  the 
Dutch,  English,  and  French  languages,  so  that  they  might  be  able  to 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  ^ 

obtain  from  foreign  books  the  secrets  of  that  power  which  they  could 
not  fail  to  acknowledge. 

But  the  most  important  step  was  taken  when  they  resolved  to  send 
to  foreign  countries  young  men  to  be  educated  in  the  sciences  and  arts 
of  the  West.  As  early  as  1861  some  of  their  youth  were  sent  to  Hol- 
land, and  afterward  to  England  and  America.  Strangely  enough, 
some  of  the  first  to  be  sent  out  were  from  provinces  whose  daimios  i 
had  been  the  most  bitter  opponents  to  foreign  intercourse.  They  ( 
were  the  first  to  see  that,  if  they  were  ever  to  compete  with  the 
power  of  Western  nations,  they  must  be  able  to  turn  against  them  the 
weapons  drawn  from  their  own  sciences  and  arts.  The  education  of 
Japanese  young  men  in  foreign  countries,  although  of  so  recent  a  date, 
has  already  been  productive  of  the  most  important  results.  Many  of 
the  most  responsible  positions  in  the  Government  are  now  filled  by  the 
men  who  received  their  education  and  acquired  their  knowledge  of  for- 
eign affairs  in  Europe  and  America.  These  men,  and  others  equally 
enlightened  and  progressive,  saw  the  necessity  of  establishing  a  system 
of  education  which  should  give  to  their  country  a  knowledge  of  the  < 
languages  and  sciences  of  those  nations  with  which  in  the  future  they 
were  to  be  so  intimately  associated. 

Origin  of  the  Department  of  Education. — Hence,  after  the  revolu- 
tion in  the  government  by  which  the  shogunate  was  abolished  and  the 
mikado  resumed  his  ancient  authority,  one  of  the  most  important  re- 
forms inaugurated  was  the  establishment  of  a  department  of  public 
instruction.  This  took  place  in  1871,  and  all  matters  relating  to  schools, 
colleges,  libraries,  and  other  educational  institutions,  were  intrusted  to 
this  department.  The  system  of  education  which  now  prevails,  and 
which  is  fast  providing  for  the  nation  a  system  of  universal  education,  is 
the  work  which  it  has  undertaken. 

It  was  not  necessary  in  this  work  to  begin  from  the  ioundation. 
The  old  system  of  learning  which  had  prevailed  for  centuries  in  Japan, 
and  which  had  been  competent  to  produce  its  statesmen  and  writers 
and  artists,  showed,  by  its  results,  that  it  possessed  high  merit.  The 
traditional  fondness  and  aptitude  for  scholarship  which  distinguish 


1 8  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

the  Japanese  nation,  made  it  easy  to  secure  the  adoption  of  measures 
for  the  advancement  of  education.  Under  the  stimulus  of  foreign  inter- 
course, and  the  strong  desire  to  learn  foreign  languages,  there  had 
already  sprung  up  in  various  cities  schools  designed  to  satisfy  this  want. 
As  early  as  1856  a  school  for  teaching  foreign  languages  was  begun  in 
the  city  of  Yedo,  under  government  auspices.  Under  native  and  foreign 
teachers  several  foreign  languages  were  taught,  and  the  elements  of  a 
Western  education  were  supplied.  It  was  out  of  this  nucleus  that  the 
present  large  and  flourishing  group  of  institutions  for  foreign  learning 
in  the  city  of  Yedo  originated.  The  newly-organized  Department  of 
Education  wisely  resolved  to  utilize  all  such  educational  material,  and 
has  made  it  the  basis  for  the  more  systematic  and  complete  set  of 
institutions  which  it  has  established. 

System  of  Administration,—  In  order  to  understand  the  system  of 
education  devised  and  established  by  the  department  of  public  instruc- 
tion, it  is  necessary  to  explain  something  of  the  mode  of  administration 
of  the  present  Government  of  Japan. 

The  responsible  head  of  the  empire  is  the  mikado,  or  emperor,  in 
whose  name  and  authority  all  laws  and  edicts  are  issued.  The  details 
of  administration,  however,  are  intrusted  to  various  departments,  each 
being  charged  with  its  appropriate  work.  These  departments  are : 
Foreign  Affairs,  Home  Affairs,  Military  Affairs,  Naval  Affairs,  Public 
Works,  Education,  Finance,  Justice,  and  the  Imperial  Household.  For 
the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  details  of  administration  in  different 
localities,  the  whole  country  is  divided  into  about  sixty  kens  or  prefec- 
tures, in  each  of  which  is  organized  a  local  government,  the  officials  of 
'  which  are  appointed  by  and  are  responsible  to  the  central  Government. 

Organization  of  the  Department  of  Education.— rThe  Department 
of  Education  is  administered  by  a  minister  and  other  officers.  At  its 
organization  the  head  of  the  department  was  Oki,  a  man  of  great  energy 
and  judgment.  He  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  head  of  the 

Department  of  Justice.    At  the  present  time  the  head-officer  is  Tanaka 

\" 
Fujimaro,  the  vice-minister.    The  business  is  transacted  in  separate 

\  bureaus  or  boards,  each  having  its  appropriate  work. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  ,9 

/^The  Bureau  of  Superintendence  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  inspect- 
ing the  schools  of  the  empire,  and  with  the  duty  of  general  superin- 
endence.  \  The  officers  of  the  bureau  are  Nomura  Sosuke  and  Hatake- 
yama  Yoshinari,  superintendents,  together  with  inspectors  and  sub- 
inspectors. 

(f  The  Bureau  of  School  Affairs  has  charge  of  the  business  of  the 

i  schools  with  the  department,  and  with  the  appointment  and  designation 

\  of  officers  and  teachers.    The  chief  officers  are  Kuki  Riuichi  and  Tsuji 

Shinji,  with  whom  are  associated  secretaries  and  clerks  for  the  transac- 

j      tion  of  the  business. 

/  "  The  Bureau  of  Medical  Affairs  has  charge  of  the  schools  of  medi- 

I   cine  and  pharmacy  under  the  department^  The  health-office  was 

j    formerly  connected  with  this  bureau,  but  has  been  recently  transferred 

l^_to  the   Department  of  Home  Affairs./   The  chief  of  this  bureau  is 

Nagayo  Sensai. 

The  Bureau  of  Reports  collects,  arranges,  and  publishes  statistics 
of  education.  It  gathers  information  concerning  education  in  foreign 
countries.  It  publishes  a  semi-monthly  report  containing  information 
for  teachers  and  those  interested  in  education.  The  compilation  and 
preparation  of  school-books  are  in  its  charge./  The  chief  officers  are 
Nishimura  Shigeki  and  Nakashima  Nagamoto. 

The  Bureau  of  Finance  is  charged  with  the  care  of  all  financial 
transactions  of  the  department,  with  the  payment  of  moneys  to  the  gov- 
ernment schools  and  the  distribution  of  the  annual  appropriations  to  the 
local  school  bureaus.  The  head  of  the  bureau  is  Uchimura  Riozo. 

The  government  schools  are  each  managed  by  a  director,  who  is  ap- 
I  pointed  by  the  Department  of  Education,  and  who  is  generally  one  of 
its  officers.     The  director  is  responsible  for  the  general  conduct  of  the 
institution,  but  in  all  important  matters  is  required  to  consult  the  de- 
portment. 

In  each  of  the  local  governments  there  are  officers  charged  with 
the  care  of  educational  affairs>  who  are  required  to  look  after  the  organi- 
zation and  maintenance  of  the  schools  in  the  different  districts.    The 
\  empire  is  divided  into  seven  grand  school-districts,  in  each  of  which  it 


20  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

is  planned  to  establish  educational  institutions  for  higher  instruction. 
These  grand  school-districts  are  subdivided  into  middle  and  elementary 
school-districts.  Of  the  latter  there  were  in  1874  about  forty-five 
thousand.  Their  boundaries  are  determined  by  the  natural  features  of 
the  country,  care  being  taken  to  construct  districts  so  that  the  access  to 
the  schools  may  be  easy,  and  also  so  that  the  ancient  communal  asso- 
ciations of  the  people  may  be  as  far  as  possible  respected. 

The  institutions  of  learning  which  have  been  organized  under  the 
department  may  be  classified  and  described  under  the  following  heads  : 

i.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. — The  elementary  schools  are  under  the 
immediate  charge  of  the  educational  officers  of  the  local  governments. 
As  fast  as  the  circumstances  of  the  districts  would  justify  they  have 
been  established,  or  where  schools  already  existed  they  have  been  reor- 
ganized. In  this  way  many  private  schools  have  been  adopted  and  have 
become  public  schools.  A  schedule  of  studies  and  other  regulations  for 
elementary  schools  was  issued  by  the  Department  of  Education.  They 
are  adhered  to  as  far  as  the  condition  of  the  schools  and  the  ability  of 
the  teachers  will  allow.  Text-books  on  the  various  subjects  of  learn- 
ing have  been  prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  department,  and 
published  for  the  benefit  of  the  schools.  Charts  for  teaching  reading, 
writing,  geography,  and  arithmetic,  have  been  prepared,  and  instruc- 
tions for  their  use  have  been  issued. 

The  age  for  admission  to  the  lowest  grade  is  about  six  years.  Males 
and  females  are  admitted  without  distinction. 

The  entire  programme  of  study  is  designed  for  eight  years,  and  is 
divided  into  two  courses — a  junior  and  a  senior  course,  each  of  four 
years.  Each  year  is  divided  into  two  grades,  so  that  each  of  the  two 
courses  is  divided  into  eight  grades,  of  six  months  each. 

The  subjects  of  study,  with  the  text-books  employed,  are  as  follows  : 

Reading. — Charts  of  sounds ;  charts  of  familiar  objects ;  graded 
series  of  readers ;  lives  of  western  heroes ;  accounts  of  official  titles 
and  dignitaries,  etc. 

Wr&*Mg'.-~£baxts  of  letters  in  different  styles ;  copy-books  in  differ- 
ent styles  ;  official  names  and  titles  in  Japan,  etc. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  21 

Arithmetic. — Charts  of  Japanese  and  Arabic  numerals ;  addition 
and  multiplication  tables ;  elementary  and  advanced  arithmetic ;  use 
of  the  Japanese  counting-frame ;  elementary  principles  of  algebra  ;  sys- 
tem of  Western  weights  and  measures. 

Geography. — Maps  of  Japan  ;  maps  of  Western  countries ;  ele- 
mentary and  advanced  books  on  geography ;  books  of  travels  in  all 
countries,  etc. 

History. — Histories  of  Japan  ;  history  of  the  treaty-powers  ;  general 
history. 

Morals  and  Manners. — Doctrines  to  foster  filial  obedience ;  con- 
versations on  how  to  behave  ;  work  on  virtue,  written  in  pure  Japanese  ; 
guide  to  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  world,  etc.  These  subjects 
are  taught  orally  to  the  scholars. 

Elementary  Physics. — First  steps  in  physics ;  questions  and  an- 
swers in  physics  for  children ;  physics  with  illustrations,  etc.  These 
subjects  are  to  be  taught  in  part  orally. 

Physiology. — Elementary  physiology  and  hygiene. 
As  fast  as  the  wants  of  the  communities  require  it,  secondary^ 
schools,  graded  so  as  to  receive  the  pupils  after  they  have  finished  the 
elementary  schools,  are  to  be  established.  Already  in  some  of  the  cit- 
ies this  necessity  has  a'risen.  The  subjects  of  study  are  designed  to 
follow  those  pursued  in  the  elementary  schools.  They  differ  from 
those  in  corresponding  schools  in  Europe  and  America  in  giving  more 
ineigfit  to  the  study  of  the  native  language.  To  read  and  write  this 
language  with  correctness  and  elegance  is  a  much  more  serious  task 
than  in  any  Western  country.  Its  complicated  ideographic  alphabet, 
and  its  various  styles  for  colloquial,  literary,  and  official  uses,  render  it 
much  more  difficult  of  complete  mastery. 

The  elementary  and  secondary  schools  are  supported  from  four 
different  sources:  i.  The  Department  of  Education  makes  an  annual 
grant  to  all  the  schools  of  the  empire,  in  proportion  to  the  school  popu- 
lation in  each  district.  The  power  to  make  or  withhold  this  grant  ena- 
bles the  department  to  require  that  the  schools  shall  be  conducted  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  prescribed.  2.  In  most  districts  the 


22 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


children  are  charged  a  small  fee,  which  goes  to  the  support  of  the 
schools.  3.  A  tax  is  levied  in  each  district,  under  the  supervision  of 
the  local  school-officers.  It  varies  with  the  ability  of  the  district,  and 
their  willingness  to  sustain  education.  4.  Private  individuals,  especially 
the  former  daimios,  who  still  have  considerable  revenues,  and  rich 
merchants,  frequently  make  liberal  donations  for  the  support  of  the 
schools  in  their  localities. 

To  show  the  number  and  increase  of  elementary  schools  the  fol- 


. 


lowing  table  is  given.  The  statistics  for  1875  are  not  yet  available,  but 
it  may  safely  be  stated  that  the  increase  has  even  been  greater  than 
that  given  for  1874.  It  is  estimated  that  in  1875  the  schools  numbered 
at  least  30,000,  and  the  pupils  2,000,000. 


ELEMEXTARY  SCHOOLS  AND  PUPILS. 

1874. 

Increate  for  the 
Year. 

18  712 

^^T^ 

\ 


The  following  tables  give  the  income  from  various  sources  devoted 
to  the  support  of  elementary  schoqls  under  the  direction  of  the  local 
governments,  the  expenditures  on  their  account,  and  the  approximate 
values  of  their  property.  The  yen  is  almost  identical  in  value  with  the 
gold  dollar  of  the  United  States. 

INCOME  OF   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS,    1874. 


INCOME  FOR  1874. 

Yen. 

Increase  for  the  Year. 

From  school-fees  

From  school-district  rates  

From  voluntary  contributions  

I    O8O,845    46 

From  government  pro-rata  appropriations  
From  interest  of  various  funds  

272,33°-T7 

27,804.89 

From  miscellaneous  sources  

Total  

EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN. 
EXPENDITURES  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS,    1874. 


EXPENDITURES  FOR  1874. 

Yen. 

Increaie  for  th«  Year. 

1,295,686.53 
282,527.51 
28,269.64 
643,536.01 
488,137.25 
170,832.56 
286,289.03 

672,S40-74 
150,516.54 
22,876.38 
351,213.94 
176,400.45 
l07,657-75 
138,500.81 

Total  

3,195,278.63 

1,619,706.61 

ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL   PROPERTY,    1874. 


APPROXIMATE  VALUES,  1874. 

Yen. 

In  create  for  tba  Year. 

179,867.85 

Amount  of  school-funds  

Total  

2.  NORMAL  SCHOOLS.— JThe  chief  difficulty,  in  the  introduction  of 
the  new  methods  of  instruction  and  the  new  subjects  of  study  into  the 
schools,  was  the  want  of  competent  teachers.  The  old  teachers  had 
been  accustomed  to  the  old  Japanese  and  Chinese  system.  Modern 
arithmetic,  the  geography  and  history  of  foreign  countries,  and  the 
natural  sciences,  were  comparatively  unknown.  Tlie  first  task,  there- 
fore, which  'presented  itself  to  the  Department  of  Education,  was  the 
training  of  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools. 

In  1872  a  normal  school  was  organized  in  the  city  of  Tokio ;  *  it  was 
modeled  after  similar  institutions  in  foreign  countries.  An  experienced 
foreigner  aided  in  its  organization.  It  was  designed  to  give  the  pupils 
a  good  education  in  all  the  branches  to  be  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools,  and  also  to  give  them  instruction  and  training  in  the  proper 
methods  of  teaching.  This  school  has  now  been  in  operation  four 

1  At  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the  imperial  capital  from  Kioto  to  Yedo,  the  name  of  the 
latter  city  was  changed  to  Tokio,  i.  e.,  "  Eastern  capital." 


'- 


24  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

years,  and  has  sent  out  between  two  and  three  hundred  graduates.  It 
has  connected  with  it  a  training-school  of  small  children,  where  the  pu- 
pils of  the  normal  school  are  exercised  in  teaching.  It  is  well  supplied 
with  books,  apparatus  for  instruction  in  physics  an'd  chemistry,  and 
with  gymnastic  appliances.  It  has  a  fine  building  in  a  beautiful  situa- 
tion, on  a  portion  of  the  ancient  site  occupied  by  the  famous  College  of 
Confucius. 

The  course  of  study  extends  through  two  years,  and  is  divided  into 
four  grades  of  six  months  each.  An  examination  is  held  at  the  end  of 
every  six  months,  for  promotion  into  the  higher  grades. 

The  subjects  of  study  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  Japanese  and 
Chinese  literature,  with  practice  in  writing,  reading,  and  composition  ; 
geography,  including  that  of  Japan  and  foreign  countries,  with  exer- 
cises in  map-drawing  and  the  use  of  maps  and  globes ;  mathematics, 
including  Japanese  and  foreign  arithmetic,  geometry,  algebra,  and  trigo- 
nometry, with  practice  in  the  use  of  slates  and  blackboard  ;  the  elements 
of  physics  and  chemistry,  illustrated  by  experiments ;  physiology,  bot- 
any, and  zoology ;  political  economy,  ethics,  and  the  principles  of  gov- 
ernment ;  history,  including  that  of  Japan  and  China,  and  of  the  prin- 
cipal Western  countries. 

The  training  in  methods  of  instruction  begins  with  the  second  year. 
Under  a  proper  instructor  they  at  first  observe,  and  then  take  part  in 
the  teaching  of  the  children  in  the  training-school.  They  also  have  a 
daily  conference  among  themselves  and  with  their  teacher,  where  ques- 
tions are  asked  and  explanations  are  given  in  regard  to  methods  of 
instruction. 

As  soon  as  the  success  of  the  Tokio  Normal  School  was  assured,  it 
was  resolved  to  establish  another  in  the  third  grand  school-district  in 
the  great  commercial  city  of  Osaka.  It  was  modeled  after  the  one  in 
Tokio,  and  its  officers  and  teachers  were  selected  from  among  those 
who  had  been  trained  in  it.  One  year  later  the  system  of  male  normal 
schools  was  made  complete  by  establishing  five  others,  thus  giving  one 
to  each  grand-school  district. 

Female  education  had  never  received  that  attention  in  the  old  sys- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  25 

tern  of  education  that  its  importance  deserved.  The  wise  and  progres- 
sive statesmen  of  the  present  era  saw  the  necessity  of  giving  to  female 
education  a  great  and  a  decided  impulse.  This  purpose  was  secured  by 
the  enlightened  generosity  of  the  empress,  who  resolved  to  do  something 
to  promote  the  education  of  her  own  sex.  She  gave  from  her  own 
private  purse  the  money  necessary  to  erect  a  building  for  a  Female 
Normal  School,  and  directed  the  Department  of  Education  to  see  her 
wishes  carried  out.  An  excellent  building  was  thereupon  erected  on  a 
beautiful  and  commanding  site,  and  in  October,  1875,  it  was  dedicated 
in  the  presence  of  her  Imperial  Majesty,  with  simple  but  impressive 
ceremonies.  It  was  immediately  opened  for  the  instruction  of  female 
teachers,  and  is  now  in  successful  operation.  /_ 

The  graduates  of  the  normal  schools  were,  as  rapidly  as  they  could 
be  turned  out,  sent  into  the  various  kens  to  assist  in  reorganizing  the 
elementary  schools  in  accordance  with  the  new  regulations.  Under  the 
direction  of  the  local  school-officers,  they  have  in  a  variety  of  ways  aided 
in  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  new  system  among  the  old  teachers. 
Sometimes  they  have  done  this  by  going  round  from  school  to  school, 
explaining  and  illustrating  the  methods  of  teaching  and  showing  the 
use  of  blackboards  and  charts  and  books.  Sometimes  they  have  estab- 
lished at  some  central  point  a  model  school,  where  all  the  improved 
appliances  are  put  into  use,  and  where  the  old  teachers  come  and 
observe,  and  receive  explanations  from  the  normal  graduates.  And 
finally  they  have  in  many  kens  been  employed  to  organize  a  kind  of 
local  training-school,  where  the  teachers  of  the  ken  are  gathered  to- 
gether, and  not  only  receive  instruction  in  the  methods  of  teaching 
with  the  improved  appliances,  but  also  are  taught  the  simpler  elements 
of  the  subjects  which  are  to  be  introduced  into  their  schools.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  not  less  than  fifty  of  these  local  training-schools 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  empire. 

Of  course,  it  is  well  understood  that  these  improvised  teachers  are 
very  imperfectly  fitted  for  their  work,  and  only  serve  a  temporary  pur- 
pose. Yet  the  plan  has  been  successful  in  establishing  schools  on  a 
more  extensive  scale  than  could  have  been  possible  in  any  other  way. 
2 


26 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


Although  the  instruction  must  for  a  long  time  to  come  be  imperfect,  yet 
the  progress  has  been  both  substantial  and  rapid  beyond  all  expectation. 
The  following  table  gives  a  summary  of  the  government  and  local 
normal  schools  as  they  stood  in  1874.  Since  that  time  great  progress 
has  been  made.  Additional  local  normal  schools  have  been  established, 
and  the  Female  Normal  School,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  students,  has 
been  opened. 


A  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SCHOOLS   FOR  TRAINING  TEACHERS. 


NORMAL  SCHOOLS  IN  1874. 

NUMBER. 

Nnmber  of 
Teachw.. 

Nnmb«r  of 
Student*. 

Govern- 
mental. 

Local. 

\ 

6 
\ 

2 

95 
58 
33 

1 

22 
25 

1,477 
1,079 

547 
529 
=33 
773 

384 

Total... 

Cfl 

28  s 

•5,022 

3.  FOREIGN-LANGUAGE  SCHOOLS. — For  the  present,  and  possibly 
for  a  long  time  to  come,  the  higher  education  of  the  Japanese  must  come 
to  them  through  a  foreign  tongue.  Their  own  language  is  too  de- 
ficient in  the  literature  of  foreign  science,  and  even  in  well-understood 
terms  for  the  expression  of  the  ideas  of  foreign  learning  and  philosophy, 
to  make  it  a  fit  medium  for  their  communication.  Just  as,  in  the  mid- 
dle ages  of  Europe,  the  Latin  was  employed  as  the  learned  language, 
so  for  the  present,  at  least,  the  Japanese  must  employ  the  English  as 
the  language  in  which  they  must  study  science  and  philosophy.  At  a 
later  period,  when  a  set  of  men  have  been  trained  in  all  the  learning  of 
the  West,  and  are  capable  of  drawing  continued  inspiration  from  for- 
eign books,  they  will  in  turn  interpret  these  ideas  to  their  country-men. 
They  will  coin  the  new  words,  write  the  new  books,  teach  the  new  sci- 
ences, which  shall  put  Japan  and  Japanese  literature  on  a  level  with  the 
civilization  of  Western  nations. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  27 

To  effect  these  results,  the  Department  of  Education  has  estab- 
lished at  important  centres  schools  for  foreign  learning.  In  each  of  the 
seven  grand-school  districts  a  school  of  this  character  is  established,  to 
be  conducted  in  the  English  language.  In  addition  to  this  there  is  in 
Tokio  a  school  in  which  are  taught  German,  French,  Russian,  and  Chi- 
nese. An  English  school  for  girls  has  also  been  in  operation  for  sev- 
eral years  in  Tokio. 

The  programme  of  studies  in  these  language-schools  extends 
through  six  years,  and  is  divided  into  a  junior  and  senior  course,  each 
of  three  years.  The  students  are  admitted  to  these  schools  after  they 
have  finished  the  junior  course  of  the  elementary  schools,  and  in  addi- 
tion have  acquired  such  a  knowledge  of  the  foreign  language  that  they 
can  read  and  speak  easy  sentences. 

The  studies  of  the  junior  course  include  the  following  subjects  : 

JUNIOR  COURSE. 

Japanese  Language :  Daily  training  in  reading,  writing,  and  com- 
posing. 

English  Language :  Daily  drill  in  the  pronunciation,  spelling, 
reading,  and  conversation,  followed  by  grammar  and  the  art  of  compo- 
sition. 

Writing  and  Drawing. 

Geography :  Native  and  foreign ;  map-drawing ;  use  of  maps, 
globes,  etc. 

Mathematics :  Arithmetic ;  practice  in  mental  computation  ;  ele- 
ments of  algebra. 

History :  Japanese  and  Chinese  history,  and  an  outline  history  of 
Western  countries. 

Morals  and  Manners :  Oral  instruction. 

SENIOR  COURSE. 

In  addition  to  the  above  subjects  the  following  are  studied  : 
Mathematics :  Geometry,  algebra,  and  trigonometry. 
History :  The  history  of  the  several  countries  with  which  Japan  is 
connected  by  treaty. 


28 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


Physics  :  The  elements  of  general  physics  and  chemistry. 

Natural  History  :  Including  botany,  zoology,  and  physiology. 

Philvsophy :  Including  the  elementary  principles  of  ethics  and 
metaphysics. 

Political  Science:  Including  discussion  of  the  different  forms  of 
government,  the  principles  of  political  economy,  and  of  international 
law. 

Besides  the  government  foreign-language  schools,  there  are  a  large 
number  of  private  schools,  taught  in  a  great  part  by  native  teachers,  in 
which,  however,  sometimes  foreign  teachers  are  employed.  For  the 
year  1874  eighty-two  such  schools  are  reported  as  in  operation. 

In  connection  with  schools  of  foreign  languages  it  is  proper  to  men- 
tion the  important  influence  upon  education  produced  by  the  schools, 
established  in  connection  with  the  various  foreign  religious  missions  in 
Japan.  Before  the  establishment  of  the  present  government  schools, 
they  were  almost  the  only  means  by  which  a  knowledge  of  foreign  lan- 
guages could  be  obtained,  and  many  of  the  best  foreign  scholars  re- 
ceived their  first  instruction  in  the  schools  of  missionaries.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  many  schools  of  this  kind  both  for  males  and 
females.  A  careful  estimate  made  for  me  a  year  ago  gives  the  number 
of  scholars  under  the  instruction  of  the  Protestant  missionaries  as  not 
less  than  seven  hundred.  Those  under  the  missions  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches  must  be  a  still  greater  number. 


FOREIGN-LANGUAGE   SCHOOLS. 


FOREIGN-LANGUAGE    SCHOOLS  IN  1874. 

NUMBER. 

Number  of 
Teacher*. 

Number  of 
Students. 

Govern- 
mental. 

Local. 

2 

I 
I 
I 
1 
I 

3 

56 
8 
ii 

i 

2 

4 

147 
29 
23 

3 

32 

5 

3.63I 
3& 
655 

i 
3°4 
258 

Tola}  

10 

83 

247 

S,3i9 

EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  '  29 

4.  UNIVERSITY  OF  TOKIO. — To  provide  for  the  higher  education  in 
this  national  system,  the  Department  of  Education  has  begun  by  estab- 
lishing in  the  capital  an  institution  of  a  high  grade.  It  grew  out  of  the 
old  foreign-language  school  which  was  founded  in  1856,  and  which  has 
been  developed  step  by  step  as  the  wants  of  the  country  demanded.  It 
is  designed  as  the  receptacle  for  those  students  of  the  various  foreign- 
language  schools  who  desire  to  obtain  a  professional  or  a  technical 
education.  Its  present  university  organization  was  effected  in  1873. 

The  requirements  for  admission  are  a  proficiency  in  the  studies  of  the 
junior  course  in  a  foreign-language  school.  That  is,  the  applicant 
must  possess  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  English  language,  both  as  to 
writing  and  speaking.  He  must  be  a  good  elementary  Japanese  and 
Chinese  scholar.  He  must  have  mastered  arithmetic,  descriptive 
geography,  and  the  history  of  Japan,  as  well  as  an  outline  history  of 
Western  nations. 

The  programme  of  studies  extends  through  six  years,  three  of  which 
are  devoted  to  a  general  course  of  study  in  fundamental  subjects,  de- 
signed to  give  general  culture  as  well  as  a  preparation  for  the  separate 
special  courses  which  are  to  follow.  During  the  last  three  years  the 
students  enter  upon  professional  or  technical  subjects,  being  divided 
into  separate  departments  or  colleges  for  that  purpose. 

The  general  course  includes  the  following  subjects  : 

Language:  Grammar;  rhetoric;  English  literature;  logic;  with 
practice  in  English  composition. 

Mathematics :  Algebra ;  geometry ;  trigonometry  and  its  applica- 
tions. 

History  :  General  history  ;  history  of  England  and  her  colonies ;  of 
the  United  States  ;  France  and  Germany  ;  history  of  civilization. 

Physics :  Elements  of  physics,  with  experimental  illustrations ;  gen- 
eral inorganic  chemistry,  with  practical  illustrations  ;  descriptive  and 
physical  astronomy. 

Natural  History :  Human  and  comparative  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology ;  botany  ;  botanical  physiology  ;  zoology  ;  mineralogy  ;  geology. 

Political  Economy  :  History  and  principles  of  political  ethics. 


3o  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Latin :  Grammar,  and  exercises  in  translation  into  English. 

The  special  courses  are  pursued  in  distinct  colleges,  in  which  the 
students,  besides  continuing  certain  general  studies  in  science  and  phi- 
losophy, are  chiefly  occupied  with  special  and  professional  branches.  It 
is  a  part  of  the  plan  of  this  university  to  increase  the  number  of  special 
departments  as  the  circumstances  may  demand.  At  present  the  fol- 
lowing schools  are  organized  and  in  operation  : 

1 .  College  of  Law,  in  which  the  pupils  study  the  Latin  and  French 
languages  ;  the  philosophy  of  mind  and  morals  ;  the  history  and  science 
of  politics  ;  international  law  ;  English  law  ;  Roman  law  ;  French  law  ; 
comparative  jurisprudence,  especially  as  applied  to  the  penal  and  civil 
laws  of  Japan. 

2.  College  of  Chemical  Technology,  in  which  the  pupils  study  the 
French    language ;    the    philosophy    of  minji    and    morals ;    mineral- 
ogy, geology,  and  mining ;  physics,  with  laboratory  practice ;  general 
chemistry ;    analytical   chemistry ;    chemical   technology ;    and  metal- 
lurgy. 

3.  College  of  Engineering,  in  which  the  studies  are  the  French  lan- 
guage ;  the  philosophy  of  mind  and  morals  ;  physics,  with  laboratory 
practice  ;  mineralogy,  geology,  and  mining  ;  higher  mathematics  ;  land 
and  railway  surveying  ;  hydraulic  engineering  ;  theoretical  and  applied 
mechanics  ;  thermo-dynamics  ;  machines  ;  designs  for  engines  and  en- 
gineering works  ;  drawing,  and  graphical  calculation. 

4.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing  departments  of  study,  there  is  a 
School  of  Arts  and  Mamifactures  conducted  in  the  Japanese  language. 
The  studies  are  divided  into  two  courses,  viz.,  a  course  in  chemical  arts 
and  a  course  in  mechanical  arts.     Each  course  extends  through  three 
years,  of  which  one  year  and  a  half  is  employed  in  preparatory  studies, 
and  the  remaining  one  year  and  a  half  in  special  studies  and  technical 
work.     The  studies  include  the  following  : 

Chemical  Arts :  Arithmetic  ;  algebra  ;  physics  ;  chemistry  ;  labo- 
ratory practice,  and  practical  training  in  the  manufacture  of  chemical 
products. 

Mechanical  Arts  :  Arithmetic ;  algebra ;  geometry  ;  drawing ;  phys- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  3I 

ics ;  chemistry  ;  mechanics  ;  experiments  with  machines,  and  practical 
training  in  the  manufacture  of  mechanical  products. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  greater  part  of  the  philosophical  ap- 
paratus in  the  educational  part  of  the  Japanese  exhibit  was  manufact- 
ured at  the  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures. 

yf- 

The  chief  director  of  the  university  is  Hatakeyama  Yoshinari.     The 

instructors  are  in  part  foreigners  and  in  part  Japanese.     The  following 
statistics  will  exhibit  the  present  condition  of  the  institution  : 

Directors 2 

Other  officers n 

Foreign  professors 20 

Japanese  professors  and  instructors 14 

Students  in  School  of  Law 17 

Students  in  School  of  Chemistry 24 

Students  in  general  course 131 

Other  students 156 

Total  students 349 

The  university  has  a  library  of  books,  chiefly  text-books  and  books 
of  reference,  for  the  use  of  professors  and  students.  The  collections 
of  apparatus  in  physics,  chemistry,. and  engineering,  are  extensive  and 
practically  serviceable.  It  has  also  a  good  working  collection  of  min- 
erals, and  geological  and  other  specimens. 

5.  PROFESSIONAL  AND  TECHNICAL  INSTITUTIONS. — The  want 
of  trained  public  servants  led  the  Government,  at  an  early  period  of 
its  foreign  intercourse,  to  establish  institutions  to  provide  men  edu- 
cated and  trained  in  the  special  arts  of  the  West.  It  was  under  the 
pressure  of  this  necessity  that  the  following  institutions  have  been 

> 

organized  and  put  in  operation  : 

1.  Military  College. — This  was  established  first  in  1867,  under  the 
care  of  a  French  military  commission,  detailed  for  this  purpose  from 
the  French  army.     It  is  doubtless  due  to  this  commission,  and  to  the 
instruction  given  in  the  military  college,  that  the  Japanese  army  has  at- 
tained its  present  high  degree  of  discipline  and  efficiency. 

2.  Naval  College. — The  success  of  the  army  school  led  to  a  subse- 
quent organization  of  a  similar  kind  for  the  navy.     The  instruction  is  in 


32  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

the  English  language,  and  is  given  by  a  commission  of  officers  detailed 
from  the  English  navy. 

3.  Engineering  College. — To  supply  competent  engineers  for  its 
operations,  the  Department  of  Public  Works  has  established  a  college. 
The  students  are  taught  the  English  language,  and  receive  a  thorough 
course  of  instruction  in  theoretical  and   practical  engineering.      The 
graduates  from  this  college  are  appointed  to  positions  in  the  various 
divisions  of  work  conducted  by  the  department. 

4.  Medical  College. — Medical  education  was  always  a  subject  of  care 
on  the  part  of  the  Government,  and,  when  the  impulse  toward  foreign 
education  began  to  be  felt,  medicine  was  one  of  the  favorite  new  sci- 
ences.    The  result  of  the  efforts  toward  medical  education  was  the 
establishment  of  a  medical  college  of  a  high  character.     It  is  conducted 
in  the  German  language.     Already  its  influence  is  felt  in  'the  progress 
and  irriprovement  of  medical  practice  in  the  country.     Instead  of  the 
old  empiric  Chinese  system,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  adopt  the 
more  scientific  methods  of  Western  practice. 

In  estimating  the  progress  that  has  been  made  in  medical  education, 
we  must  not  omit  the  organization  «f  hospitals  in  the  empire.  Of  these 
there  are  now  a  large  number  located  principally  in  the  great  cities.  In 
most  of  them  one  or  more  foreign  physicians  are  employed,  and  in  all 
such  cases  a  class  of  medical  students  is  connected  with  the  hospital, 
\vho  receive  systematic  instruction  as  well  as  daily  practice  among  the 
patients  of  the  hospital. 

6.  MISCELLANEOUS  EDUCATIONAL  AGENCIES. — Schools  and  col- 
leges are  by  no  means  the  only  agencies  by  which  the  education  of  a 
nation  is  advanced.  The  circulation  of  books  and  newspapers,  and  the 
establishment  of  libraries  and  museums,  are  now  everywhere  recognized 
as  exerting  an  important  influence  upon  the  progress  of  human  knowl- 
edge. Of  these  influences  it  is  important  to  give  some  account  in  any 
statement  of  the  agencies  which  are  now  promoting  education  in  Japan  : 

I.  Books  and  Newspapers. — From  an  early  period  a  class  of  literary 
men  existed  in  Japan.  They  were  held  in  high  esteem,  and  usually 
were  the  pensioners  of  the  General  Government  or  of  some  one  of  the 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  33 

territorial  nobles.  The  ancient  literature  of  Japan  consisted  mainly  of 
works  on  history  and  philosophy,  together  with  poetry  and  works  of 
fiction.  The  introduction  of  the  art  of  printing  with  blocks  enabled 
printers  to  multiply  books  at  a  moderate  cost.  Works  of  fiction  were 
extensively  read  by  -all  classes,  especially  by  females.  Under  the  im- 
pulse created  by  the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreigners,  a  strong 
desire  sprang  up  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  foreign  countries  and  foreign 
laws  and  customs.  It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  the  new  literature  in 
Japan  is  now  chiefly  directed  to  the  supply  of  this  want.  Thousands 
of  books  have  been  written  and  published  in  reference  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. Many  important  works  have  been  translated,  both  for  the  supply 
of  the  popular  demand  and  for  the  information  of  the  officers  of  the 
Government.  Educational  books  have  been  extensively  compiled  or 
translated  from  foreign  sources,  covering  most  of  the  subjects  of  ele- 
mentary instruction  in  the  schools.  Dictionaries  and  other  books  facili- 
tating the  acquisition  of  foreign  languages  have  been  prepared. 

The  newspaper,  in  the  present  sense,  is  a  new  institution  in  Japan, 
dating  back  only  about  nine  years.  The  design  in  its  first  establish- 
ment was,  to  provide  a  means  of  explaining  and  defending  the  progres- 
sive measures  which  the  Government  had  adopted.  Since  that  time 
newspapers  have  multiplied  rapidly,  so  that  now  there  are  more  than 
one  hundred  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  capital  alone  there 
are  at  least  a  dozen,  many  of  which  have  a  large  circulation,  two  at  least 
reaching  ten  thousand  daily.  The  best  literary  talent  of  the  day  is  em- 
ployed upon  these  newspapers,  and  subjects  of  public  and  international 
interest  are  discussed  with  a  force  and  intelligence  which  will  bear  com- 
parison with  the  best  journalism  of  the  times.  There  is  a  bureau  for 
the  regulation  of  the  press,  and  occasionally  unpleasant  collisions  have 
occurred,  but  in  the  main  a  large  degree  of  liberty  is  allowed  by  the 
Government,  and  a  hearty  support  is  tendered  by  the  press. 

The  necessity  of  making  the  newspaper  intelligible  to  the  various 
classes  of  readers  has  produced  a  marked  modification  in  the  style  of 
writing.  The- stiff,  learned  Chinese  style,  affected  by  the  old  admirers  of 
the  classics,  has  given  way"  to  a  more  near  approach  to  the  language  of 


34 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


the  people.  It  is  believed  that  this  modification  will  become  a  per- 
manent improvement  to  the  language,  and  will  render  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  more  rapid  and  easy. 

2.  Libraries  and  Museums. — From  the  time  of  the  recent  transfor- 
mation of  the  Government,  the  collection  of  books  has  become  necessary 
for  the  use  of  the  departments  and  the  institutions  of  learning.  The 
first  public  library,  however,  under  the  new  regime,  has  been  opened  in 
the  capital  by  the  Department  of  Education.  It  was  first  organized  in 
1872  and  then  contained  only  Japanese  and  Chinese  books.  In  1875  it 
was  reorganized  on  a  larger  basis  and  now  contains  a  valuable  collection 
of  foreign  as  well  as  native  literature.  The  leading  periodicals,  both  in 
Japanese  and  foreign  languages,  are  kept  on  file.  It  is  free  to  the  public, 
and  is  designed  as  a  general  library,  to  be  annually  increased  by  the 
expenditure  of  a  stated  sum. 

In  1873  a  museum  was  organized,  intended  to  exhibit  the  following 
classes  of  collections  :  Industrial  specimens  ;  specimens  of  art,  and  art 
applied  to  industry  ;  specimens  of  scientific  and  educational  apparatus  ; 
specimens  in  natural  history,  agriculture,  and  ethnology.  This  mu- 
seum grew  out  of  the  collection  of  articles  made  for  the  Vienna  Expo- 
sition, and  has  gradually  increased,  until  it  is  now  a  collection  of  rare 
value  and  interest. 

Another  museum  has  been  more  recently  organized  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  for  the  benefit  chiefly  of  the  educational  institutions 
located  in  Tokio.  It  is,  however,  also  intended  to  be  opened  for  the  pub- 
lic benefit.  It  is  less  a  general  museum  than  a  special  series  of  collec- 
tions in  the  various  subjects  important  in  an  educational  course. 

The  two  tables  which  follow,  and  which  close  this  chapter,  will  fur- 
nish some  statistics  in  reference  to  the  attendance  at  the  various  grades 
of  schools  and  the  number  of  teachers  employed.  The  population  as 
given  in  the  table  does  not  include  that  of  the  northern  island,  Yezo, 
nor  the  Liu  Kiu  Islands.  These  dependencies  are  not  included  in  the 
seven  grand-school  districts,  and  the  administration  of  their  educational 
affairs  is  not  intrusted  to  the  Department  of  Education  : 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  - 

M 

TABLE    SHOWING    THE    POPULATION    AND    NUMBER    OF    PUPILS 

IN   1874. 


Population  of  seven  grand-school  districts 33,579,9°9 

Whole  number  of  pupils 1,739,423 

Percentage  of  pupils  to  population 5.18 

Pupils  in  elementary  schools 1,725,107 

males 1,303,300 

"        females 421,807 

Pupils  in  government  and  local  normal  schools 5,022 

Pupils  in  foreign-language  schools 5,319 

Pupils  in  government  colleges 3,937 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  NUMBER  OF  TEACHERS   IN   1874. 

Whole  number  of  teachers 38,365 

Whole  number  of  male  teachers 37,73* 

Whole  number  of  female  teachers 634 

Teachers  in  elementary  schools 37,6n 

Teachers  in  normal  schools 285 

Teachers  in  foreign-language  schools 247 

Teachers  in  government  colleges 245 

Foreign  teachers 212 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    SKETCH. 

IN  the  earliest  times  the  use  of  alphabetical  characters  was  un- 
known in  our  country,  and  was  introduced  when  intercourse  with 
foreign  countries  was  first  opened.  Characters  are  said  to  have  been 
first  introduced  by  natives  of  Mimana,  a  part  of  the  present  Corea, 
who  visited  our  country  during  the  successive  reigns  of  the  Emperors 
Kaika  and  Suijin  (157  B.  C.,  30  B.  C.). 

Books  were  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  Empress  Jingo 
(200  A.  D.),  who  brought  them  from  Corea,  which  country  she  in- 
vaded with  naval  forces  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Chuai  (192  A.  D., 
200  A.  D.). 

The  first  use  of  writing  for  public  affairs  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Richu  (400  A.  D.,  404  A.  D.),  when 
officers  of  the  finance  department  were  appointed  to  keep  accounts 
of  receipts  and  expenditures,  and  officers  were  also  appointed  in 
each  province  to  record  and  report  all  the  affairs  of  the  local  gov- 
ernments. 

The  son  of  the  Emperor  Ojin  (270  -A.  D.)  was  taught  to  read  the 
Chinese  classics  and  histories,  under  the  instruction  of  a  professor 
called  Wani,  who  was  sent  from  Corea  to  the  imperial  court,  in  the 
sixteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor. 

This  was  the  commencement  of  the  study  of  literature  in  this 
country. 

Although  the  art  of  weaving  is  said  to  have  been  originated  by 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  37 

Tensho-daijin,  the  commencement  of  its  general  practice  dates  from  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Ojin  (270  A.  D.),  who  called  weavers  and  needle- 
workers  from  China,  by  sending  messengers  thither  for  the  purpose. 
The  Emperor  Yuriyaku  (457  A.  D.)  again  called  such  artisans  from 
abroad  and  distributed  them  to  all  the  provinces. 

After  this  period  these  arts  began  to  be  extensively  practised. 

As  to  the  medical  art,  it  owes  its  origin  to  Oanamuchi-no-Mikoto, 
and  Sukuna  Hikona-no-Mikoto. 

Subsequently,  the  Emperor  Jukio  (412  A.  D.)  sent  for  physicians  to 
Shirako,  one  of  the  states  of  Corea. 

The  Emperor  Ninken  (488  A.  D.)  sent  for  carpenters  to  Koma,  also 
one  of  the  states  of  Corea. 

The  Emperor  Keitai  (507  A.  D.)  invited  professors  to  teach  the 
Chinese  classics  from  Corea,  and  the  Emperor  Kinmei  (540  A.  D.) 
sent  for  professors  of  medicine,  almanac-making,  and  divination.  At 
this  time  Buddhism  was  also  introduced.  In  the  reign  of  the  Empress 
Suiko  (593  A.  D.)  a  priest  of  Corea,  named  Kanroku,  came  and  pre- 
sented to  the  empress  books  on  almanac-making,  astronomy,  and  geog- 
raphy. In  the  twelfth  year  of  her  reign  almanacs  were  first  used. 
At  this  period  an  embassador  was  first  sent  to  the  court  of  the  Zui 
dynasty  of  China,  and  the  ceremony  of  opening  intercourse  with  that 
court  was  performed.  After  the  Zui  dynasty  was  superseded  by  that  of 
To,  the  practice  of  sending  embassadors  to  that  court  was  still  kept 
up. 

A  student  named  Takamuku  Kuromasa,  and  a  priest  called  Bin, 
returned  hither  after  having  been  educated  in  China.  In  the  first  year 
of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kotoku  (645  A.  D.)  these  two  persons 
were  appointed  professors,  and  were  directed  to  assist  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  government. 

This  is  the  first  instance  of  political  honor  being  bestowed  upon 
scholars. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (593  A.  D.),  the  Prince  Sho- 
toku  administered  the  government,  and,  while  he  was  thus  acting  as 
regent,  he  established  seventeen  regulations  as  the  fundamental  laws 


38  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

of  the  country.  These  are,  however,  scarcely  anything  more  than  mere 
instructive  maxims. 

The  prince  being  a  most  devoted  believer  in  Buddhism,  exerted  him- 
self to  promote  its  doctrines  ;  so  that  from  this  period  it  became  pre- 
dominant in  the  country. 

The  Emperor  Kotoku,  who  was  fond  of  learning,  effected  a  change 
in  the  system  of  government.  He  enforced  a  just  and  equal  adminis- 
tration in  all  the  provinces,  and  remedied  the  abuses  of  the  local 
officers  by  appointing  new  governors  of  provinces  in  the  place  of  the 
old  ones,  who  had  virtually  held  the  lands  and  their  inhabitants  as 
their  own  property  and  subjects. 

In  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  the  emperor  established  new  laws, 
the  rules  of  administration  in  the  provinces  and  counties,  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  population,  the  rate  of  taxes,  and  the  measurement  of  lands. 
He  also  encouraged  good  government  by  rewarding  merits  and  punish- 
ing crimes,  and  promoting  extension  of  education. 

At  this  period  Prince  Tenji,  who  afterward  became  emperor,  acted 
as  regent,  as  the  Prince  Shotoku  had  formerly  done  under  the  Empress 
Suiko. 

First  Establishment  of  Educational  Institutions.— The  first  educa- 
tional institution  was  founded  in  the  second  year  of  the  Emperor  Tenji 
(668  A.  D.),  who  established  at  the  seat  of  government  a  national  uni- 
versity, with  its  professors  and  students.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Tenmu  (672  A.  D.)  an  observatory  was  erected  for 
the  observation  of  the  position  and  movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
In  the  first  year  of  Taiho  (702  A.  D.)  the  emperor  effected  a  great 
change  in  the  educational  system,  by  reorganizing  the  university  in  the 
capital  and  establishing  provincial  schools  in  each  province,  and  a  supe- 
rior school  in  Dazai,  the  principal  seat  of  government  in  the  island  of 
Kiusiu.  Departments  of  medicine  and  astrology  were  also  established 
in  the  government,  to  superintend  all  matters  concerning  these  sciences 
in  all  the  provinces. 

In  the  university,  professors  of  the  sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters, 
of  penmanship,  of  medicine,  of  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  women,  of 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  39 

almanac-making,  and  of  astronomy,  were  appointed,  and  students  were 
chosen  to  be  educated  in  each  of  these  sciences.  A  musical  department 
was  also  established,  with  teachers  of  music  to  instruct  pupils  both  in 
the  old  national  music  and  in  foreign  music. 

When  the  penal  laws  and  the  imperial  edicts  were  first  codified  in 
the  first  year  of  Taiho  (702  A.  D.),  rules  of  education  were  also  estab- 
lished, defining  the  duties  of  professors  and  the  studies  of  students. 
By  these  rules,  the  full  term  of  study  for  students  was  fixed  at  nine 
years,  and  the  books  to  be  used  in  instruction  were  arranged  in  three 
grades,  viz.,  senior,  middle,  and  junior.  The  ages  of  students  to  be 
admitted  were  limited  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  in  all  branches  of  edu- 
cation. But  the  educational  system  in  those  days  was  not  designed 
to  diffuse  knowledge  among  the  people  at  large,  but  merely  to  provide 
from  among  the  students  persons  to  be  employed  in  public  offices. 
Particular  rules  of  examination,  therefore,  were  adopted,  according  to 
which  students  who  obtained  the  first  or  second  degree  in  the  examina- 
tion were  regarded  as  having  successfully  passed  the  examination. 
They  were  again  subdivided  into  six  classes,  according  to  the  grade 
attained  in  the  examination. 

In  the  first  year  of  Keiun  (704  A.  D.)  a  certain  allowance  was  made 
for  educational  purposes  out  of  the  public  fund  reserved  to  meet  general 
exigencies. 

In  the  first  year  of  Tenpeihoji  (757  A.  D.),  and  again  in  the  thirteenth 
year,  public  land  was  appropriated  for  the  encouragement  of  education. 
Besides  these  grants,  there  was  another  appropriation  made  in  each 
province.  This  was  rice  collected  as  interest  on  loans  made  to  farmers, 
and  was  appropriated  to  pay  for  provisions  and  other  miscellaneous  ex- 
penses of  students. 

Expenses  for  study  were  first  allowed  to  Sugawara  Kiycgimi  by  the 
Emperor  Kanmu  (782  A.  D.).  This  was  called  "  the  monthly  allowance  ; " 
and  since  that  time  this  has  always  been  allowed  to  the  children  of  the 
Sugawara  and  Oye  families,  when  applied  for. 

The  Empress  Jito  (690  A.  D.)  rewarded  professors  by  giving  them  a 
revenue  from  the  produce  of  land,  from  silver,  or  from  landed  property. 


40  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Subsequently  this  practice  of  rewarding  men  of  learning  was  constantly 
kept  up  through  successive  reigns.  In  the  first  year  of  Tenpeihoji 
(757  A.  D.)  the  students,  who  were  appointed  professors  or  physicians 
in  the  provinces,  were  ordered  to  present  their  first  year's  salary  to  their 
former  teachers. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  Showa  (838  A.  D.)  this  proportion  was  altered  ; 
and  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Jokan  (859  A.  D.)  the  rate  to  be  thus  sur- 
rendered was  fixed  at  one-tenth  of  one  year's  salary  annually,  and  this 
was  made  the  permanent  rule. 

The  subjects  of  instruction  were  divided  into  four  courses,  as  follows  : 
The  course  in  which  history  was  taught,  together  with  the  art  of  com- 
position ;  the  course  in  which  the  six  Chinese  classics  were  studied ; 
the  course  in  which  the  penal  laws  and  the  imperial  edicts  issued  as 
rules  of  action  wrere  taught ;  and  the  course  in  arithmetic  and  mathemat- 
ics. Besides  these,  there  was  a  course  in  the  sounds  of  the  Chinese  char- 
acters ;  and  one  in  penmanship. 

In  the  medical  department  there  were  four  separate  courses,  viz. :  in 
the  treatment  of  internal  diseases ;  the  treatment  of  incised  wounds  and 
of  skin-diseases ;  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  infants ;  and  the  treatment 
of  diseases  of  the  ear,  eye,  mouth,  and  teeth. 

Besides  these,  the  arts  of  shampooing,  of  acupuncture,  and  of  ap- 
plying moxa,  were  taught,  each  as  a  separate  branch  of  study. 

In  the  astronomical  department  the  movements  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars,  were  observed.  Astrological  divination  was  taught  and  prac- 
tised, and  the  annual  number  of  days,  etc.,  was  computed  for  the  al- 
manacs. 

As  to  the  method  of  choosing  students,  those  of  the  university  were 
to  be  selected  from  among  the  children  of  families  which  were  entitled 
to  adopt  the  term  Shi  (literature)  for  their  family  name,  and  only  from 
those  above  the  eighth  rank.  Students  of  the  medical  department  were 
chosen  from  among  the  children  of  families  entitled  to  adopt  the  term 
Yaku  (medicine)  for  their  family  name,  and  from  among  those  of  the 
families  hereditarily  professing  medicine.  Students  of  astrology  were 
chosen  from  among  the  children  of  the  families  adopting  the  term  Boku 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  4! 

(divination)  for  their  family  name,  and  from  among  those  of  families 
hereditarily  professing  that  calling. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  Jinki  (728  A.  D.)  the  professorships  of  law  and 
composition  were  established  in  the  university,  and  students  were  ad- 
mitted to  be  educated  in  these  branches  of  study.  Those  students  who 
made  distinguished  progress  in  the  study  of  the  arts  or  sciences  were 
chosen  to  form  a  distinct  class,  called  Tokugiosei  (fellows).  A  rule 
was  established  in  the  eighth  year  of  Yenriyaku  (789  A.  D.)  by  which 
students  of  the  university  below  thirty  years  of  age  were  excluded  from 
public  employment ;  but  this  rule  was  abolished  in  the  first  year  of  Ten- 
cho  (824  A.  D.),  and  students  of  all  ages  were  admitted  into  the  public 
service,  according  to  their  talents  and  knowledge. 

Foundation  of  Educational  Institutions  in  Kioto. — In  the  thirteenth 
year  of  Yenriyaku  (794  A.  D.)  the  Emperor  Kanmu  founded  the  castle 
called  Heianjo  at  Kioto  in  Yamashiro,  and  established  near  it  an  impe- 
rial university.  Subsequently  the  Sugawara  and  Oye  families  founded 
schools,  within  the  grounds  of  the  university,  consisting  of  two  build- 
ings, called  the  eastern  and  western  halls. 

Fujiwara  Fuyutsugu,  a  minister  of  state,  established  a  school  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  university  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
Fujiwara  family. 

The  consort  of  the  emperor,  Saga,  also  founded  a  school  for  the 
education  of  children  of  her  family,  namely,  that  of  Tachibana. 

The  Prince  Tsunesada  converted  a  building  used  as  a  pleasure-house 
of  the  emperor  into  a  school  for  the  education  of  the  children  of  the  O 
family.  Ariwara  Yukihira  also  founded  a  school  for  the  O  family. 

These  five  schools  were  originally  private  institutions,  but  afterward 
were  incorporated  as  branches  of  the  university. 

With  regard  to  the  libraries,  during  the  period  Hoki  (770  A.  D.,  780 
A.  D.),  a  person  called  Isonokami  lyetsugu  collected  books  for  the  use 
of  the  public. 

During  the  period  Yenriyaku  (782  A.  D.,  805  A.  D.),  Wage  Hiroyo 
founded  a  library,  in  which  he  kept  several  thousand  books. 

Sugawara  Michizane  also  collected  a  library. 


42  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

A  large  number  of  books  were  accumulated  by  the  Oye  family,  and, 
as  they  had  been  preserved  through  many  successive  generations  with- 
out being  destroyed  by  fire,  Oye  Masafusa  once  remarked  that  the  liter- 
ary calling  descending  by  inheritance  in  his  family  shared  the  same  fate 
as  the  imperial  court.  This  remark  proved  to  be  true,  for,  when  the 
library  of  the  Oye  family  was  subsequently  destroyed  by  fire,  the  impe- 
rial court  also  declined. 

Fujiwara  Yorinaga,  a  minister  of  state,  who  was  very  fond  of  literary 
pursuits,  purchased  a  great  number  of  books,  which  he  arranged  in  the 
four  classes  of  Chinese  classics,  histories,  miscellaneous,  and  Japanese 
books,  and  placed  them  on  shelves,  distinguished  from  one  another. 
The  greater  part  of  the  books  were  of  his  own  copying. 

Works  on  Law  and  History. — The  laws  and  regulations  of  Japan 
were  formerly  divided  into  the  following  classes,  viz. :  The  penal  laws  ;  the 
imperial  edicts,  issued  as  rules  of  action  ;  incidental  regulations  adopted 
from  time  to  time  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  moment ;  and  official 
instructions  prescribed  for  the  government  of  officers  in  conducting  their 
affairs.  Although  these  were  all  originally  copied  from  the  laws  adopted 
by  the  To  dynasty  in  China,  it  was  by  the  Emperor  Tenji  (668  A.  D.)  that 
they  were  first  established  in  this  country.  These  were  again  arranged 
by  the  Emperor  Tenmu  (672  A.  D.)  and  were  afterward  revised  by  the 
Emperor  Monmu  (697  A.  D.),  during  the  periods  of  Taiho,  under  the 
name  of  Taihorio.  The  Empress  Gensho  (715  A.  D.)  again  revised  this 
work  during  the  period  Yoro.  This  was  called  Yororio,  and  consisted 
of  twenty-seven  volumes,  two  of  which  are  now  lost.  The  penal  laws 
consisted  of  twelve  volumes,  of  which  only  four  are  now  extant. 

The  incidental  regulations  were  completed  during  the  three  succes- 
sive periods,  Konin  (810  A.  D.,  823  A.  D.),  Jokan  (859  A.  D.,  876  A.  D.)t 
and  Yengi  (901  A.  D.,  922  A.  D.).  This  work  consisted  of  thirty-two 
volumes,  of  which  nine  are  preserved.  The  official  instructions  estab- 
lished in  the  period  Yengi,  consisting  of  fifty  volumes,  are  entirely  pre- 
served. The  two  codes  of  rules  established  in  the  period  Konin  and 
Jokan  are  embodied  in  Yengishiko. 

The  commencement  of  the  compilation  of  histories  dates  from  the 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  43 

twenty-eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (620  A.  D.),  when 
Prince  Shotoku,  with  the  assistance  of  Soga  Umako,  compiled  the  his- 
tory of  the  emperors,  and  a  history  of  the  country. 

They  were  left  unfinished,  and,  being  kept  in  the  house  of  Umako, 
when  his  son,  Yemiji,  having  suffered  punishment  for  his  crimes,  set 
his  house  on  fire  and  destroyed  himself,  the  history  of  the  emperors, 
together  with  other  works,  was  reduced  to  ashes. 

A  person  called  Funeno  Eshiaka  saved  the  history  of  the  country 
from  destruction  by  the  same  fire,  and  presented  it  to  Prince  Nakano 
Oye. 

The  Emperor  Tenmu  having  formed  the  intention  of  compiling  a 
history,  ordered  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign  the  Princes  Kawashima 
and  Oshikabe  to  prepare  a  history  of  the  imperial  reigns,  with  other 
events  of  former  times.  The  two  princes  died  before  the  work  was 
completed.  The  Empress  Genmiyo  ordered  the  Prince  Toneri  to  su- 
perintend the  work,  which  was  finished  in  the  fourth  year  of  Yoro  (720 
A.  D.),  and  is  entitled  "  Nihonshoki "  ("  A  History  of  Japan  ").  This  is 
the  first  history  of  this  country,  and  was  soon  followed  by  others,  such  as 
"Zokunihonki,"  "Nihonkoki,"  "  Zokunihonkoki,"  "Buntoku-jitsuroku," 
"  Sandaijitsuroku,"  "  Honcho-seiki,"  etc.  All  these  are  authentic  his- 
tories of  this  country. 

For  more  than  seven  hundred  years  after  these  works  were  written, 
no  important  historical  writings  appeared.  Works  of  an  historical 
nature  were  published,  but  they  were  far  from  being  correct  and  com- 
plete. Mitsukuni,  the  Prince  of  Mito,  having  in  his  youth  cherished  the 
design  of  completing  a  history  of  Japan,  wrote  a  work  commencing 
from  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Jinmu  down  to  the  time  when  the  two 
imperial  courts  became  united  into  one.  His  son  Tsunayeda  (1702 
A.  D.)  prosecuted  the  intention  of  his  father  and  completed  the  history 
after  the  lapse  of  one  hundred  years  from  the  death  of  Mitsukuni. 

This  history  is  called  "  Dainihonshi  "  (or,  "  History  of  Great  Japan  "), 
and  consists  of  two  hundred  and  forty-two  volumes,  including  the  chrono- 
logical record  of  events  and  biographies  of  particular  persons.  Though 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  notes  and  chronological  tables  have  not  been 


44  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

added  to  this  history,  still  it  is  considered  to  be  the  most  complete  ever 
written  in  this  country. 

Decline  of  Learning, — From  the  period  of  Yenriyaku  (782  A.  D., 
805  A.  D.)  perfect  tranquillity  prevailed  in  the  country  during  one  hun- 
dred years.  Literature  was  much  cultivated  through  the  successive 
reigns,  and  many  talented  and  learned  men  flourished.  At  this  period 
literary  culture  reached  a  standard  never  before  attained.  But,  as  pro- 
longed peace  is  apt  to  produce  effeminacy  in  life  and  indolence  in 
literary  pursuits,  the  result  was  that  at  last  educational  institutions  also 
began  to  be  less  successfully  managed  than  before. 

Miyoshi  Kiyotsura  (914  A.  D.),  who  possessed  practical  ability  and 
political  knowledge,  presented  to  the  emperor,  in  the  fourteenth  year  of 
Yengi,  a  memorial  containing  twelve  articles,  in  which,  among  other 
things,  he  stated  his  opinion  on  the  subject  of  education  in  the  following 
words  :  "  The  successful  government  of  a  country  depends  upon  wisdom, 
and  wisdom  depends  upon  education. 

"  Now,  educational  institutions  have  been  allowed  to  become  places 
of  hunger  and  cold,  in  consequence  of  the  insufficient  maintenance 
received  from  the  land-tax  and  from  the  income  of  the  farmers'  rice- 
loans  which,  in  the  course  of  a  long  period,  have  come  to  be  not  so 
well-managed  as  formerly.  It  is  humbly  requested  that  the  educational 
land-tax  be  restored  to  its  former  condition,  and  that  the  income  from 
rice-loans  be  applied  to  the  support  of  students  ;  and  it  is  further 
requested  that  strict  orders  be  given  to  professors  to  recommend  stu- 
dents to  the  imperial  service  in  the  most  impartial  way." 

It  is  seen,  from  what  is  mentioned  in  the  code  of  rules  established  in 
the  period  Yengi,  that  his  request  was  complied  with. 

A  work  containing  a  code  of  regulations,  and  consisting  of  fifty  vol- 
umes, was  completed  and  presented  to  the  emperor  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Tencho  (927  A.  D.).  It  is  seen  from  this  work  that  the  literary  and 
political  institutions  at  this  time  were  in  a  very  satisfactory  condition. 
There  is  one  volume  called  "  The  Rules  of  the  University,"  which  de- 
scribes the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  at  the  festival  given  in  honor  of 
Confucius,  and  the  rules  in  regard  to  the  lectures  given  by  professors, 


EDUCATION  IN   JAPAN.  45 

and  also  the  rules  for  examining  the  students,  as  well  as  the  regulations 
for  the  allowance  to  be  made  for  their  support. 

The  decaying  condition  of  the  university  is  referred  to  in  the  state- 
ment of  Fujiwara  Atsumitsu,  who  presented  his  memorial  on  seven  sub- 
jects to  the  emperor  in  the  first  year  of  Hoyen  (i  135  A.  D.). 

When  Yorinaga,  councilor  of  state,  superintended  the  examination 
of  students  in  the  third  year  of  Ninpei,  he  examined  them  in  his  private 
residence. 

In  the  first  year  of  Jisho  (1177  A.  D.),  the  ceremony  of  the  festival 
given  in  honor  of  Confucius  was  performed  in  the  office  of  the  Im- 
perial Government,  the  university  having  been  destroyed  by  fire.  From 
these  facts  it  will  be  seen  that  the  university  was  then  in  a  decaying 
state. 

About  the  Old  Libraries  and  Schools. — A  library  was  founded  by 
Hojo  Akitoki  (1240  A.  D.),  and  is  located  in  the  village  of  Kanazawa,  in 
the  province  of  Musashi.  The  institution  was  used  as  a  school  during 
the  nine  generations  of  the  Hojo  family,  and  a  number  of  .books,  both 
Chinese  and  Japanese,  were  kept  in  it.  Some  of  the  books  are  to  this 
day  found  scattered  among  the  people.  A  school  was  established  in  the 
village  of  Ashikaga,  in  the  province  of  Shimotsuke.  It  was  a  provincial 
school  in  the  middle  ages  of  Japan,  and  when  it  decayed  it  was  turned 
into  a  school  for  priests  of  the  Zenshu  sect  of  Buddhists.  During  the 
period  Onin  (1370  A.  D.),  Uyesugi  Norizane  rebuilt  the  school-house, 
stored  books  in  it,  and  endowed  it  with  lands.  As  literature  was  entirely 
neglected,  and  became  almost  extinct  at  this  period,  owing  to  the  general 
disturbances  and  agitations,  this  was  the  only  school  existing  in  the 
whole  country,  and  is  said  to  have  been  resorted  to  even  by  students 
from  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  the  country. 

Tokugawa  lyeyasu  (1603  A.  D.)  instructed  Hayashi  Doshiun  to 
establish  a  school,  but  owing  to  some  cause  the  work  was  not  accom- 
plished. In  the  seventh  year  of  Kanyei  (1630  A.  D.)  a  school  was  first 
established  under  the  government  of  Tokugawa  on  the  Uyeno  hill.  In 
the  period  Genroku,  Nobuatsu,  the  grandson  of  Doshiun,  removed  the 
institution  to  die  site  of  the  Temple  of  Confucius,  when  it  was  called 


46  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

the  Shohei  School.  Doshiun,  the  grandfather  of  Nobuatsu  and  Shiunsai, 
his  father,  both  kept  their  heads  shaven,  and  were  classed  among  the 
Buddhist  priesthood.  Nobuatsu,  however,  abandoned  the  priesthood, 
and  allowed  his  hair  to  grow,  and  received  the  title  of  Chancellor  of  the 
University. 

By  the  time  that  Hayashi  Ko  Dainaiki  represented  the  family  three 
generations  after  Nobuatsu,  literature  became  extensively  culti- 
vated. 

Tokugawa  lyeyasu  (1603  A.  D),  regretting  the  destruction  of  books 
which  had  taken  place  during  the  long  wars  and  disorders,  took  meas- 
ures to  encourage  the  printing  of  books.  For  this  purpose  he  instructed 
Hayashi  Doshiun  to  purchase  useful  works.  He  employed  every  means 
to  obtain  them,  and  had  them  printed  as  he  found  them. 

In  the  thirteenth  year  of  Keicho  (1608  A.  D.),  he  used  types  in  print- 
ing, and  in  the  nineteenth  year  he  is  said  to  have  used  copper  types. 
Printing  was  first  used  as  early  as  in  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Koken 
(749  A.  D.),  when  "Mukuseijokio,"  a  sacred  book  of  the  Buddhists,  was 
printed  ;  but  since  that  time  no  mention  is  made  of  printing  books  for 
the  space  of  nearly  four  hundred  years,  till  the  third  year  of  Shoan 
(1301  A.  D.),  when  "  Gokenho  "  was  printed.  This  is  the  commence- 
ment of  printing  in  the  middle  ages  of  Japan. 

"Hanniyakio,"  a  sacred  book  of  the  Buddhists,  was  printed  in  the 
first  year  of  Genriyaku  (i  184  A.  D.).  "  Sentakushu  "  was  printed  in  the 
second  year  of  Kenriyaku,  and  "  Shibrioshiu  "  was  printed  in  the  second 
year  of  Shoka  (1258  A.  D.).  Since  this  period  the  art  of  printing  has 
been  extensively  practised,  so  that  a  second  edition  of  "  Kongo,"  the 
Confucian  Analects,  was  printed  in  the  period  Shohei  (1347  A.  D.). 
The  art  of  printing  with  types  was  early  practised,  but  the  precise  date 
is  not  known. 

Schools  of  Dahnios  and  Private  Schools. — After  the  period  of 
Genna  (1615  A.  D.,  1623  A.  D.),  when  general  peace  and  order  were 
established  under  the  Tokugawa  family,  each  Daimio  became  possessed 
of  his  own  land,  and  provided  for  the  education  of  his  vassals,  and  the 
people  living  in  his  dominion.  The  first  school  ever  built  by  a  Daimio 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  47 

is  the  one  founded  by  Kobayokawa  Takakage  (1580  A.  D.),  but  the  old- 
est school  among  those  which  have  remained  until  recent  times  is  the 
one  established  by  Uyesugi  Kagekatsu  (i  596  A.  D.).  Next  to  those  per- 
sons comes  Mayeda,  the  Prince  of  Kaga,  who  did  much  for  the  spread  of 
literary  learning,  and  erected  a  large  school  called  Meirindo..  Besides 
these  schools,  there  were  many  similar  establishments  in  Owari,  in  Higo, 
in  Aidzu,  etc.  Ikeda,  the  Prince  of  Bizen,  built  a  school  at  Shibutani,  to 
educate  his  vassals  in  literature  as  well  as  military  science.  Among  all 
others,  the  two  schools  of  Mito  are  most  conspicuous. 

A  school  founded  by  Ito  Jinsai  (1680  A.  D.)  is  the  first  school  ever 
founded  by  a  private  individual.  Since  then  nearly  all  who  professed 
classical  or  literary  learning  have  had  their  private  schools.  In  the 
period  Bunka  (1801  A.  D.,  1817  A.  D.),  Nakai  Sekijen  established  a 
school  at  Osaka.  This  was  the  largest  private  school  in  recent  times. 

Modern  School  System. — At  the  restoration  of  the  imperial  govern- 
ment (1867  A.  D.),  the  management  of  educational  matters  was  again 
resumed  by  the  Imperial  Government,  and  many  changes  were  intro- 
duced. In  the  fifth  year  of  Meiji  (1872  A.  D.),  the  Educational  Depart- 
ment was  established.  The  country  was  then  divided  into  seven  grand 
school-districts  for  educational  purposes.  These  districts  were  again 
subdivided  into  districts  for  higher  schools,  and  into  districts  for  com- 
mon schools.  Educational  regulations  were  established,  and  courses 
of  study  laid  out,  and  required  to  be  taught  in  the  schools  of. the  coun- 
try. A  normal  school  and  a  school  of  the  English  language  were  also 
established  in  the  principal  seat  of  each  of  the  large  educational  dis- 
tricts. A  medical  school  and  hospital  were  founded  at  Tokio.  At  the 
University  of  Tokio  various  sciences  and  arts  are  taught  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  Schools  for  the  instruction  in  foreign  languages,  and 
those  for  the  education  of  females,  have  been  established,  together  with 
normal  schools  for  the  education  of  female  teachers. 

Technical  schools  for  military  and  naval  science,  for  engineering,  for 
medicine  and  law,  have  been  organized  and  opened.  So  that  at  least 
the  most  pressing  educational  wants  of  the  country  have  been  provided 
for. 


48  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


CHAPTER   II. 
EDUCATION   IN  THE   EARLY  AGES. 

Origin  of  Characters  and  Books. — The  education  of  the  people 
being  the  foundation  of  good  government,  it  has  never  been  neglected 
by  those  who  have  aimed  at  promoting  the  prosperity  of  a  country,  and 
the  happiness  of  its  people. 

To  furnish,  therefore,  the  means  of  education  to  every  youth  in  the 
country,  by  providing  schools  and  teachers  of  various  branches  of 
knowledge,  forms  one  of  the  most  important  and  necessary  measures  to 
be  adopted  by  the  state. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  use  of  characters  was  not  known  in  our 
country,  and  tradition  was  the  only  means  by  which  the  deeds  or  words 
of  the  ancients  were  preserved  and  transmitted.  Nor  did  the  use  of 
characters  become  known  till  intercourse  with  foreign  countries  was 
opened.  The  use  of  this  important  medium  of  knowledge  is  said  to 
have  been  introduced  by  a  native  of  a  country  called  Okara  (one  of  the 
ancient  provinces  of  Corea),  who  visited  this  country  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Kaika  (157  B.  C.). 

Subsequently,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Shuijin  (97  B.  C.),  another 
person  of  the  same  country  came  to  live  in  Japan  who  is  believed  to  have 
aided  in  the  introduction  of  a  written  language. 

In  the  reign  of  the  same  emperor,  an  envoy  was  sent  to  the  imperial 
court  by  the  King  of  Okara  to  pay  tribute  ;  and  again,  in  the  sixty-eighth 
year  of  the  same  reign,  the  royal  prince  of  the  same  country  came  to 
pay  his  personal  respects  to  the  imperial  court,  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  Emperor  Shuijin  (97  B.  C.),  who  thereupon  gave  the  name  of 
Mimana  to  the  prince's  native  land.  From  this  time  foreigners  began 
to  pay  visits  to  this  country,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  art  of  writing 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  4g 

dates  from  this  period,  although  the  national  histories  furnish  no  clear 
evidence  on  this  point. 

There  existed  at  a  later  period  a  book  consisting  of  five  volumes, 
under  the  title  of  "Hijinsho."  This  book  was  written  by  Hijin,  who, 
although  it  is  not  -clearly  proved,  is  said  by  some  to  be  a.  native  of  Koma, 
in  Corea ;  but  the  work  is  now  lost,  and  but  a  few  of  the  characters 
used  in  it  are  extant. 

The  Emperor  Chuai  (A.  D.  192)  died  while  on  an  expedition  against 
Kumaso,  who  had  been  instigated  to  revolt  against  the  imperial  author- 
ity through  secret  communications  made  by  the  people  of  Sankan  (the 
present  Corea),  a  country  consisting  of  the  three  states,  Shiraki,  Koma, 
and  Kudara,  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mimana. 

An  envoy  from  Mimana  to  Japan,  sent  to  pay  tribute,  was  also 
robbed  by  the  people  of  Corea. 

These  acts  of  the  people  of  Corea  ted  the  Empress  Jingo  (A.  D.  200) 
to  undertake  in  person  a  naval  expedition  against  that  country.  After 
having  conquered  the  country,  she  seized  the  magazines  within  the  cap- 
ital, and  returned  with  all  the  writings  and  books  found  in  them.  She 
then  established  a  branch  of  the  government  of  Japan  in  Mimana,  to 
preserve  order  and  peace  in  Corea.  Since  these  periods  our  country 
began  to  be  constantly  visited  by  foreign  embassaddrs,  who  came  to  pay 
tribute,  and  thus  characters  and  writing  came  into  general  use. 

The  Emperors  Ojin  (A.  D.  270)  and  Nintoku  (A.  D.  313)  were  both 
fond  of  literary  pursuits,  and  greatly  patronized  them.  The  Emperor 
Richu  (A.  D.  400)  caused  the  accounts  of  receipts  and  expenditures  in 
the  department  which  had  charge  of  the  precious  metals,  jewels,  and 
other  valuable  things  of  the  emperor,  to  be  kept  in  writing,  and  appoint- 
ed Wani  and  Achino-omi,  natives '  of  Kudara,  for  this  purpose.  The 
emperdr,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  appointed  recording  officers  in 
each  province  to  record  all  the  proceedings  of  the  local  government, 
that  the  wishes  of  the  people  of  all  quarters  might  be  known  to  the 
imperial  court.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  appointment  of  recording  offi- 
cers in  the  provinces  as  well  as  in  the  court.  Thus  the  utility  of  writing 
and  of  books  began  to  be  manifest. 
3 


50  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Introduction  of  Learning,  Arts,  and  Laws. — In  A.  D.  270,  the 
youngest  son  of  the  Emperor  Ojin,  when  a  mere  boy,  being  very  fond  of 
reading,  endeared  himself  to  his  father,  and  was  by  him  nominated  his  heir. 

In  the  fifteenth  year  of  his  reign,  a  son  of  the  King  of  Kudara,  in 
Corea,  named  Ajiki,  came  to  this  country,  and,  being  a  great  scholar  in 
the  Chinese  classics,  was  made  tutor  to  the  prince. 

Once,  being  asked  by  the  emperor  if  he  knew  any  professor  superior 
to  himself  in  learning  in  his  country,  Ajiki  nominated  .Wani,  saying  that 
he  was  the  most  learned  man  in  the  whole  country.  Upon  this  the 
emperor  immediately  sent  for  Wani,  who  came  the  year  following  and 
presented  to  the  emperor  the  book  of  "  Confucian  Analects,"  and  also 
the  "  Thousand-Character  Classic." 

The  prince  read  many  books  and  made  great  progress  in  his  studies 
under  the  instruction  of  Wani,  so  that  upon  one  occasion,  when  a  letter 
was  sent  to  the  emperor  by  the  King  of  Koma,  his  knowledge  enabled 
him  to  detect  uncivil  terms  in  the  letter,  which  he  tore  up,  severely 
reproving  the  envoy  who  had  presented  it.  Wani  passed  his  life  in  this 
countiy  in  the  service  of  the  imperial  court. 

From  Wani  descended  two  families  with  whom  literature  became  an 
hereditary  profession.  The  posterity  of  these  two  families  increased  in 
number,  and  Hved  respectively  in  Yamato  and  Kawachi.  They  were 
called  eastern  and  western  families,  Yamato  being  situated  in  an  east- 
ern and  Kawachi  in  a  western'  direction. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ketai  (A.  D.  514)  a 
professor  of  the  five  classical  books  was  invited  from  Kudara,  in  Corea, 
by  the  order  of  the  emperor.  A  professor  was  accordingly  sent  from 
Kudara,  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  same  reign  another  came  to  suc- 
ceed him  in  his  office. 

This  is  the  commencement  of  the  practice  of  calling  professors  from 
foreign  countries  to  educate  students  in  literature. 

In  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  the  same  reign,  the  emperor  issued  a 
decree  ordering  that  the  selection  of  men  for  the  public  service  be  made 
to  depend  upon  their  integrity  and  learning,  so  as  to  encourage  the 
cause,  of  morality  and  education. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  51 

This  is  the  origin  of  the  custom  of  appointing  students  to  the  impe- 
rial service  from  the  university  and  from  the  provincial  schools,  and  for 
a  long  time  this  was  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  educational  system 
in  Japan. 

After  a  time,  Kotoku-Bateian,  professor  of  the  five  classical  books, 
came  from  Kudara  to  succeed  Koanmo  in  his  office,  and  -in  the  fif- 
teenth year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kinmei  (A.  D.  540)  another 
professor  named  Oriuki  again  came  and  succeeded  them  in  the  office. 

Oshinji,  the  descendant,  in  the  fifth  generation,  from  Wani,  pursued 
his  hereditary  profession,  and  was  employed  by  the  Emperor  Bitatsu 
on  account  of  his  literary  talents. 

Once  he  displayed  his  ability  in  reading  a  letter  presented  to  the  em- 
peror from  Koma,  which  none  among  the  literary  families  was  able  to 
make  out.  Upon  this  the  emperor  much  praised  his  talent,  and  request- 
ed him  to  attend  always  near  him,  while  he  reproached  the  others  for 
their  imperfect  learning.  About  this  period  Buddhism  found  its  way 
into  this  country,  and  gained  many  converts  among  all  classes  of  people. 
The  study  of  literature  from  this  time  fell  largely  into  the  hands  of  the 
priests,  and  the  practice  of  calling  scholars  from  Corea  to  fill  the  office 
of  professors  of  literature  was  no  longer  kept  up. 

In  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (A.  D.  593),  the  Prince  Shotoku 
assisted  her  as  regent  in  the  administration  of  the  government. 

This  prince  had  a  strong  memory,  and  acquired  an  extensive  knowl- 
edge, but,  being  a  most  devoted  believer  in  Buddhism,  considered  the 
promotion  of  the  religious  cause  the  most  important  affair  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  country.  He  did  not,  however,  entirely  neglect  the  en- 
couragement of  education,  and  therefore,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the 
same  reign,  sent  an  envoy  to  the  court  of  the  Zui  dynasty  in  China,  to- 
gether with  two  students,  named  Takamuku  and  Minamibushi,  and  the 
priest  Bin,  to  be  educated  there.  These  students  remained  there  for 
ten  years,  until  the  Zui  dynasty  was  superseded  by  that  of  To. 

Takamuku  remained  more  than  twenty  years  longer,  but  the  priest 
and  Minamibushi  returned  sooner.  The  latter  gave  instruction  to  the 
Prince  Nakano  Oye  (afterward  the  Emperor  Tenji)  and  to  Nakatomino 


£3  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Kamako  (better  known  as  Fujiwara  Kamatari),  who  afterward  aided  in 
destroying  the  rebellious  Soga  Emiji  and  his  son. 

The  Emperor  Kotoku,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  (A.  D.  645), 
made  the  Prince  Oye  heir-apparent,  and  promoted  Kamako  to  the  rank 
of  chief  privy  councilor. 

The  emperor  was  a  great  patron  of  literature,  showing  favor  to  all 
men  of  letters  without  distinction  of  position. 

He  appointed  Takamuku  and  Bin  to  the  professorships  of  the  pro- 
vincial schools,  giving  them  a  share  in  the  administration  of  the  Govern- 
ment. This  is  the  first  instance  of  natives  being  appointed  to  profess- 
orships, which  had  hitherto  been  occupied  exclusively  by  scholars  from 
Corea. 

The  arts  of  weaving  and  sewing  were  introduced  into  Japan  by 
Achino  Omi.  He  was  the  descendant  of  a  king  of  the  Kan  dynasty,  in 
China,  who  fled  to  the  northeastern  frontier  of  the  country  on  the  fall 
of  the  dyn'asty.  He  lived  in  a  region  adjoining  Corea.  On  this  account 
he  became  acquainted  with  this  country',  and  in  the  twentieth  year  of 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ojin  came  hither  to  settle,  accompanied  by 
inhabitants  of  all  the  seventeen  provinces.  • 

All  the  people  whom  he  brought  with  him,  both  men  and  women, 
were  intelligent  and  well-practised  in  the  arts  of  weaving  and  sewing. 
In  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  the  same  reign  Achigimi  was  sent  to  China 
to  procure  more  weavers  and  sewers.  After  the  lapse  of  five  years  he 
returned  with  four  female  weavers,  whom  he  presented  to  the  Emperor 
Nintoku,  the  last  emperor  having  died  in  his  absence. 

This  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  introduction  of  these  arts  into 
Japan. 

The  cultivation  of  mulberry-trees,  however,  was  not  carried  on  at 
these  periods.  Their  introduction  dated  from  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Yuriyaku  (A.  D.  457),  who,  being  attentive  to  the  interests  of  the  peo- 
ple, was  anxious  to  introduce  the  culture  of  silkworms.  To  attain  this 
end  he  induced  the  empress  to  engage  in  this  occupation,  in  order  thus 
to  lead  the  people. 

In  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  same  reign  the  emperor  again  sent  for 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN,  53 

weavers  and  sewing-women  from  China  by  dispatching  a  special  mes- 
senger for  that  purpose ;  and  on  their  arrival  distributed  them  to  the 
several  provinces.  Mulberry-trees  were  planted  in  all  places  whose  soil 
was  suitable  to  their  cultivation.  From  this  period  the  arts  of  weaving 
and  sewing  began  to  be  extensively  practised. 

The  medical  art  was  introduced  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  lukio  (A.  D.  412),  who  sent  for  a  physician  from  Corea  to 
cure  his  sickness.  The  introduction  of  the  musical  art  also  dates  from 
the  forty-second  year  of  the  same  reign,  when  a  musician  was  brought 
from  the  same  country. 

The  art  of  building  was  introduced  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Jihken  (A.  D.  488),  when  carpenters  were  sent  for  from 
Corea. 

Thus  it  is  owing  to  their  introduction  from  China  and  Corea,  that 
various  arts,  such  as  weaving,  sewing,  building,  etc.,  including  medi- 
cine and  music,  were  brought  to  a  degree  of  perfection,  although  some 
of  these  may  have  originally  existed  in  this  country. 

In  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kinmei,  he  sent 
orders  to  Corea  to  send  professors  of  medicine,  divination,  and  almanac- 
making,  together  with  books  on  these  arts. 

Accordingly,  in  the  year  following,  a  professor  of  divination,  a  pro- 
fessor of  almanac-making,  and  professors  of  medicine,  were  sent.  Be- 
sides these,  a  professor  of  materia  medica  and  musicians  were  also  sent. 
They  were  to  stay  in  this  country  and  hold  their  offices,  to  be  succeeded 
by  others  after  a  certain  length  of  time,  .as  in  the  case  of  the  professors 
of  the  five  classical  books. 

A  priest  of  Corea,  named  Kanroku,  came  in  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
press Suiko  (A.  D.  593),  and  .presented  books  on  almanac-making,  as- 
tronomy, and  geography,  whereupon  students  were  chosen  to  be  edu- 
cated in  these  sciences. 

Two  students  were  instructed  in  almanac-making,  one  in  astronomy, 
and  one  in  divination,  and  they  all  succeeded  in  their  studies.  The 
almanac  was  first  made  use  of  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  year  of  this 
reign.  The  Emperor  Tenji  made  a  clepsydra  when  he  was  yet  a  prince, 


54 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


and  when  he  ascended  the  throne  he  placed  it  in  a  tower  built  for  the 
purpose,  and  caused  the  hours  to  be  struck  by  means  of  a  bell  or  a 
drum,  as  indicated  by  the  clepsydra.  From  the  above  it  will  be'  seen 
that  the  use  of  the  almanac  was  introduced  from  abroad. 

Laws  being  the  only  effectual  means  of  suppressing  crimes  and  pre- 
venting wrongs,  are  most  important  provisions  for  the  preservation  of 
peace  and  order  in  a  country.  But  in  those  early  times,  when  people 
were,  notwithstanding  a  few  instances  of  revolt,  so  simple  and  honest 
that  the  state  of  society  approximated  to  that  golden  age  in  which  gen- 
eral peace  and  harmony  prevailed  without  any  provision  to  control  their 
action,  there  existed  nothing  -like  distinctly  enacted  laws.  But,  in  the 
offices  and  prayers  of  religion,  there  existed  petitions  which  recognized 
their  sins  against  Heaven  and  also  crimes  against  their  fellow-men,  and 
the  ceremonies  for  their  expiation.  But  when  intercourse  with  foreign- 
ers commenced,  and  the  intelligence  of  the  people  was  consequently  more 
developed,  their  habits  and  manners  became  to  some  degree  also  cor- 
rupted. Hence,  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko 
(A.  D.  604),  the  Prince  Shotoku  published  seventeen  edicts  as  the  laws  of 
the  country. 

These,  however,  were  nothing  more  than  rules  of  conduct  of  a  pure- 
ly instructive  nature,  and  far  from  what  are  called  laws  in  modern  times. 
The  fact  that  the  main  object  of  legislation  was  directed  to  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  people  and  the  mere  prevention  of  crimes  before  being  com- 
mitted, shows  the  kind  care  taken  of  the  people  on  the  part  of  the  rulers, 
and  the  honest  and  simple  manners  still  preserved  on  the  part  of  the 
people  in  those  days.  This  document  of  the  prince  being  the  oldest  of 
any  composed  after  the  style  prevalent  prior  to  the  Zui  and  To  dy- 
nasties in  China,  is  considered  by  all  who  have  literary  taste  to  belong 
to  the  Chinese  literary  period  from  202  B.  C.  to  264  A.  D.  These 
laws  of  Shotoku  are  the  first  official  documents  in  Japan  written  in  the 
Chinese  language. 

Origin  and  Organization  of  Institutions  for  Education,  Astronomy, 
Medicine,  etc.— The  first  establishment  of  a  school  dates  from  the 
reign  of  the  'Emperor  Tenji  (A.  D.  668),  who  in  the  tenth  year  of  his 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  55 

reign  appointed  Kishitsu  Shushi,  a  native  of  Corea,  to  the  office  of  su- 
perintendent of  the  Educational  Department.  Previous  to  this  time  Yei,  a 
priest  of  Corea,  came  to  this  country  and  became  naturalized.  Having 
the  reputation  of  a  great  scholar,  he  was  ordered  by  the  emperor  to 
abandon  the  priesthood,  and  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Impe- 
rial University.  Thus  originated  this  educational  institution  in  our 
country. 

An  observatory  was  erected  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Tenmu,  who  was  fond  of  literary  pursuits,  and  especially  versed 
in  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  professorship  of  astronomy  was 
also  established,  and  students  were  chosen  to  be  educated  in  this  branch 
of  science.  In  the  university,  a  professorship  of  the  sounds  of  the  Chi- 
nese characters  and  a  professorship  of  penmanship  were  established,  to 
instnict  students  who  were  chosen  to  study  these  branches. 

The  Emperor  Monmu  extended  the  educational  system  by  reor- 
ganizing the  university,  provincial  schools,  a  medical  department,  a 
musical  department,  etc.,  and  causing  students  to  be  collected  into  each 
of  these  institutions. 

The  university  had  one  superintendent,  one  assistant,  one  professor 
of  the  university,  two  assistant  professors,  two  professors  of  Chinese 
sounds,  two  professors  of  penmanship,  with  four  hundred  students,  and 
one  professor  of  mathematics,  with  thirty  students. 

The  provincial  schools  had  one  professor  with  fifty  students  in  the 
great  provinces,  forty  in  the  first-class  provinces,  thirty  in  the  middle- 
class  provinces,  and  twenty  in  the  small  provinces. 
.  The  medical  department  had  one  superintendent,  one  assistant,  one 
medical  professor  with  forty  students,  one  professor  of  acupuncture, 
with  twenty  pupils,  and  one  professor  of  shampooing,  with  ten  pupils, 
one  professor  of  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  women,  and  thirty  physi- 
cians for  the  same  were  afterward  added.  There  were  attached  also  to 
this  department  a  teacher  of  materia  medica,  a  teacher  of  cultivating 
medicinal  plants,  besides  physicians,  and  persons  to  practise  acupunct- 
ure and  shampooing. 

In   each   province   there  was   one  physician  with  students  whose 


56  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

number  was  one-fifth  of  that  of  the  students  of  the  provincial 
schools. 

The  astrological  -department  had  one  superintendent,  one  assistant, 
one  professor  of  astrology,  one  professor  of  almanac-making,  one  pro- 
fessor of  astronomy,  with  ten  pupils  in  each  of  these  branches  of 
science,  and  two  professors  of  chronometry,  with  twenty  keepers  of 
time. 

The  musical  department  superintended  all  matters  concerning  music. 
It  had  one  superintendent,  one  assistant,  four  singing-masters,  thirty 
singers,  one  hundred  female  pupils  in  singing,  and  one  hundred  students 
of  dancing.  Besides,  there  were  teachers  of  the  music  of  China  and 
Corea,  each  with  pupils  under  his  charge.  The  above  is  the  system 
which  prevailed  during  the  periods  A.  D.  701-723. 

Kiusiu  was  by  far  the  most  important  among  the  provincial  govern- 
ments, having  nine  provinces  and  three  islands  under  its  jurisdiction, 
and  exercising  the  power  of  imposing .  taxes,  commanding  military 
duty,  and  dealing  "with  foreign  embassadors.  In  short,  it  formed  an 
independent  government.  On  this  account  a  special  school  was  estab- 
lished, with  a  professor  of  literature,  a  professor  of  law,  a  professor  of 
Chinese  sounds,  and  physicians  and  keepers  of  time.  The  appointment 
or  dismission  of  professors,  as  well  as  the  examination  of  students,  was 
under  the  sole  control  of  the  local  government. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  years  of  Tempiosho-ho  (A.  D.  749-756),  Ki- 
bimabi  was  appointed  iieutenant-Governor  of  Dazai.  He  was  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  did  much  in  spreading  literary  culture.  While  he 
was  in  his  post,  he  built  a  school,  near  the  government  office,  in  which 
he  instructed  his  pupils  in  the  study  of  literature. 

As  the  Emperor  Monmu  (A.  D.  697)  instituted,  as  already  mentioned, 
the  university  and  provincial  schools,  a  medical  department,  an  astro- 
logical department,  etc.,  it  became  necessary  to  institute  rules  and 
regulations  relating  to  the  duties  of  professors  and  the  tasks  of  stu- 
dents. Accordingly,  regulations  for  educational  institutions  were  made 
and  distributed. 

The  regulations  for  educational  institutions,  together  with  such  other 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  57 

regulations  as  are  connected  with  education,  will  be  given  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. 

The  offices  of  professor  and  assistant  professor  were  only  to  be  filled 
by  those  whose  conduct  and  knowledge  "fully  qualified  them  for  the  po- 
sition of  instructors  ;  and  the  professorships  of  penmanship,  mathemat- 
ics, and  the  sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters,  were  to  be  occupied  by 
men  who  were  eminently  learned  in  these  several  arts  or  sciences,  and 
so  also  with  the  professorships  of  astronomy,  medicine,  and  almanac- 
making. 

The  professors  of  the  provincial  schools  and  physicians  were  to  be 
chosen  from  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  respective  provinces,  and, 
should  proper  persons  not  be  found  among  them,  -choice  was  to  be 
made  among  the  inhabitants  of  neighboring  provinces.  In  case  a 
choice  still  failed,  application  for  properly-qualified  persons  was  to  be 
made  to  the  Department  of  Ceremonies,  whereupon  the  vacancies  were 
filled  with  persons  chosen  from  among  the  students  of  the  university. 

When  the  governors  of  provinces  and  counties  were  found  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  Chinese  classics,  they  were  charged  with  the  duty 
of  teaching  in  conjunction  with  their  own  offices. 

The  pupils  of  the  university  were  generally  chosen  from  among  the 
children- of  families  not  below  the  fifth  rank;  but  even  the  children  of 
families  down  to  the  eighth  rank,  if  earnestly  desiring  admission,  could 
obtain  the  privilege.  The  pupils  of  the  provincial  schools  were  taken 
from  among  those  children  of  governors  of  counties  who  were  intelli- 
gent, and  aged  from  thirteen  to  sixteen.  The  grades  of  students  were 
determined  according  to  their  ages,  and  every  student  on  entering  school 
was  required  to  perform  the  prescribed  ceremony  of  acknowledging 
the  professors  and  assistant  professors  as  their  teachers.  The  term 
of  service  of  professors  was  to  be  eight  years,  and  the  professors  of  the 
provincial  schools  and  physicians  were  not  allowed  to  retire  from  their 
posts  until  the  expiration  of  the  fixed  term  of  service,  unless  there  were 
sufficient  cause  for  their  doing  so. 

The  term  of  study  allowed  to  pupils  was  nine  years,  and  those  who 
failed  to  be'taken  into  the  imperial  service  throughout  the  term  of  study 


58  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

•  were  sent  home.  One  day  of  recreation  was  allowed  to  students  every 
ten  days ;  before  each  recreation-day  they  were  examined  by  professors 
in  reading-lessons,  and  those  who  showed  themselves  more  advanced 
than  the  rest  in  these  examinations  were  admitted  to  the  regular  exami- 
nation made  at  the  end  of  every  year. 

In  this  examination  students  of  the  university  were  examined  by 
the  superintendent  and  assistant  superintendent,  and  those  of  the  pro- 
vincial schools  by  the  provincial  governors.  They  were  divided  into 
first,  second,  and  third  classes,  according  to  their  abilities  displayed  in 
the  examination  ;  and  those  who  were  put  in  the  lowest  class  for  three 
successive  years  were  to  be  dismissed. 

The  services  of  the  professors  and  assistant  professors  were  esti- 
mated according  to  their  exertions  in  teaching  during  one  year ;  thus 
those  under  whose  instruction  pupils  made  much  progress  in  their  study 
were  placed  in  the  highest  class.  As  to  the  professors  of  the  provincial 
schools,  their  services  were. also  estimated  by  their  efforts  in  instruction, 
but  they  were  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  their  merits.  The 
services  of  physicians,  too,  were  estimated  according  to  their  success 
in  treating  patients. 

•  The  books  used  in  teaching  were  divided  into  distinct  classes  : 

i..  The  Chinese  Classics. — Shuyeki,  or  The  Art  of  Divination; 
Moshi,  or  The  Book  of  Poems,  by  Mo ;.  Girai,  or  The  Book  of  Cere- 
monies ;  Kokiyo,  or  The  Book  of  Filial  Affection  ;  Shunju,  or  The  Con- 
stitutional History  of  China ;  Sho-sho,  or  The  Chinese  Imperial  Laws ; 
•Shu-rai,  or  The  Book  of  Ceremonies  in  the  Shu  dynasty  of  China; 
Raiki,  or  The  Book  of  Ceremonies ;  Kongo,  or  The  Confucian  Ana- 
lects; Sashiden,  or  The  Comments-on  Shunju. 

To  these  were  subsequently  added :  Kuyo-Den  and  Kokurio-Den, 
or  The  Comments  on  Chinese  Constitutional  History. 

2.  The  Chinese  Historical  Works. — Shiki,  or  General  History ; 
Kan-sho,  or  The  History  of  the  Kan  Dynasty ;  To-kan  Kan-ki,  or  The 
History  of  the  later  Kan  Dynasty ;  Sankoku-Shi,  or  The  History  of 
Three  Kingdoms  of  China ;  Shin-jo,  History  of  the  Shin  Dynasty. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  %      59 

3.  Miscellaneous  Works. — Ji-ga,  or  The  Imperial  Annals  of  China  ; 
Mon-zen,  or  Selections  from  Chinese  Literature. 

Books  on  astronomy,  medicine,  and  mathematics,  were  distributed 
into  their  respective  classes. 

Students  were  in  all  cases  to  study  the  "  Book  of  .Filial  Affection  " 
and  the  "  Confucian  Analects "  besides  their  principal  subjects  of 
study. 

In  estimating  the  advancement  of  the  students  in  learning,  certain 
portions  of  the  above  works  were  considered  to  be  the  equivalents  of 
each  other,  and  in  making  up  the  grades  of  the  students  might  be  sub- 
stituted for  each  other. 

The  students  were  not  allowed  to  receive  new  lessons  until  they  had 
finished  the  lessons  in  the  particular  classical  book  which  they  had  com- 
menced to  study. 

The  mode  of  instruction  was  first  to  teach  students  the  sounds  of  the 
Chinese  characters,  and  only  after  they  had  become  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  them  were  they  taught  to  understand  the  meaning. 

Students  who  had  learned  to  read  more  than  two  classical  books 
were  allowed  to  enter  into  public  service.  With  respect  to  the  students 
of  the  provincial  schools,  if  they  wished  to  study  more  than  two  classical 
books,  they  were  transferred  to  the  university. 

In  both  the  university  and  the  provincial  schools,  festivals  were  ob- 
served in  honor  of  Confucius,  in  the  equinoxes  of  every  year.  In  the 
university,  ceremonies  in  honor  of  Confucius  and  his' ten  disciples  were 
performed.  But  in  the  provincial  schools  the  festivals  were  celebrated 
in  honor  of  Confucius  and  his  disciple  Ganshi  only ;  but,  in  the  city  of 
Dazai  in  Kiusiu,  one  more  was  added. 

The  privilege  was  always  given  to  students  of  being  present  at  any 
great  ceremonies  performed  on  the  occasion  of  New-Year's  day,  or 
festivals.  They  were  also  exempt  from  manual  labor  of  any  kind,  except 
on  the  occasion  of  festivals  observed  in  honor  of  Confucius,  and  of  the 
ceremony  performed  by  students  on  entering  schools.  Should  students, 
who  left  school  on  account  of  the  death  of  their  parents,  apply  after  the 


60  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

mourning  period  had  expired  for  readmittance,  they  were  allowed  to 
return  to  school,  provided  their  age  was  under  twenty-five. 

Students  were  allowed  to  go  home  in  case  either  of  sickness  of  them- 
selves or  that  of  their  parents,  and  they  were  also  allowed  to  be  absent 
from  school  for  fifteen  days  in  the  fifth  month  and  in  the  ninth  month  of 
every  year.  To  those  whose  homes  were  in  distant  places,  a  certain 
number  of  days  was  allowed  for  traveling.  They  were  not  allowed  to 
play  music,  or  make  any  other  merriment  in  school,  except  playing  on 
the  koto  (a  stringed  musical  instrument  like  the  harp),  and  shooting 
with  bows  and  arrows.  A  persistent  violation  of  the  prohibition  was 
followed  by  expulsion  from  school. 

In  such  cases  the  reasons  of  expelling  were  always  to  be  stated  to 
the  proper  authority,  and  then  the  student  was  sent  to  the  district  to 
which  he  belonged. 

Although  the  regulations  of  educational  institutions  were  thus  far 
completed,  the  aim  was  not  directed  toward  the  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  the  people  at  large,  but  merely  to  the  education  of  persons  to  be 
employed  in  the  public  service.  Hence  there  was  a  process  for  selecting 
students  by  examination  in  the  Department  of  Ceremonies. 

Students  were  sent  to  the  examination  from  the  university,  and  also 
from  the  provincial  schools.  The  latter  were  to  be  sent  to  the  examination 
after  having  been  first  examined  by  the  provincial  governors.  Those 
who  obtained  the  first  or  second  degree  in  the  examination  held  in  the 
Department  of  Ceremonies  were  reported  to  the  emperor,  and  employed 
in  various  offices  with  different  ranks. 

Those  who  obtained  the  third,  or  a  still  lower  degree,  or  who,  during 
the  term  of  their  studies,  had  been  dismissed  from  the  university,  were 
not  taken  into  the  public  service. 

The  candidates  for  examination  for  public  service  were  divided  into 
six  classes,  according,  to  the  branch  of  study  in  which  they  had  chiefly 
engaged,  viz. :  first,  those  who  had  displayed  great  talents  ;  second,  those 
who  had  studied  not  less  than  two  Chinese  classics ;  third,  those  who  had 
studied  political  science,  and  had  also  learned  to  read  the  imperial  annals 
of  China  and  the  selections  of  Chinese  literature ;  fourth,  students  of  law ; 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  fo 

fifth,  students  of  penmanship,  and,  sixth,  those  in  mathematics.  To 
each  of  these  classes  only  men  of  integrity  and  good  conduct  were  ad- 
mitted. 

Different  modes  were  adopted  in  examining  each  of  these  different 
classes  of  students.  The  first  were  examined  in  composing  two  short 
essays  on  political  questions,  and  those  whose  compositions  were  excel- 
lent, both  in  style  and  reasoning,  stood  highest.  The  second  class  were 
examined  in  reading  articles  selected  from  the  whole  Chinese  classics. 
The  third  class  were  examined  in  composing  two  propositions  on  some 
political  question,  and  in  reading  selections  from  the  most  famous  Chi- 
nese classics. 

The  fourth  class  were  examined  in  articles  taken  from  books  on. 
Chinese  laws  and  classics.  As  to  the  class  of  p.enmanship,  facility  and 
elegance  of  hand  were  mainly  valued,  and  the  style  of  the  characters 
was  not  regarded. 

The  class  in  mathematics  were  examined  in  theorems,  selected  from 
Chinese  mathematical  works.  The  classes  in  astronomy,  astrology, 
medicine,  and  acupuncture,  were  examined  after  methods  particularly 
adapted  to  each  of  these  sciences  or  arts,  as  in  the  case  of  the  university. 

Support  of  Educational  Institutions,  and  Re^vards  to  Professors. 
—In  the  first  year  of  Keiun  (A..D.  704)  an  appropriation  was  made 
for  the  support  of  the  university  from  the  public  fund  reserved  for  the 
purpose  of  meeting  incidental  expenses. 

Again,  in  the  first  year  of  Tenpeihoji  (A.  D.  757-764),  the  emperor 
issued  a  decree  stating  that  "  there  is  no  means  better  calculated  to  pre- 
serve the  safety,  peace,  and  harmony  of  the  people,  than  the  observance 
of  appropriate  ceremonies,  nor  is  there  any  means  better  adapted  to  the 
improvement  of  the  habits  of  the  people  than  music.  .  .  .  This  is  the 
reason  that  etiquette  and  music  have  been  brought  into-  existence.  .  .  . 
Now,  the  students  of  these  important  subjects  at  the  university  and  the 
musical  department  should  be  relieved  from  the  want  of  the  necessaries 
of  life.  .  .  .  Astronomy,  astrology,  almanac-making,  mathematics,  medi- 
cine, and  acupuncture,  are  of  no  less  importance  to  the  country, .  . .  There- 
fore the  wants  of  the  students  of  these  branches  of  knowledge  should 


62  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

also  be  provided  for  by  appropriating  public  lands."  Accordingly,  thirty 
chos  (one  cho  being  about  two  and  a  half  acres)  were  appropriated 
for  the  support  of  the  university,  and  ten  chos  each  for  the  departments 
of  music,  astrology,  and  medicine. 

In  the  thirteenth  year  of  Yenriyaku  (A.  D.  794)  one  hundred  and  two 
chos  of  rice-land  in  Yechizen  were  added  in  consequence  of  an  insuffi- 
cient supply  for  the  wants  of  the  students  of  the  university,  caused  by 
the  increase  of  their  number.  This,  together  with  the  land  previously 
granted,  made  up  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  chos  of  land  under  the 
name  of  "  The  Educational  Land  Grant."  About  the  same  period 
Wage  Hiroyo,  Minister  of  Education,  contributed  his  property,  amount- 
ing to  twenty  chos  of  land,  to  the  fund  of  the  university. 

Subsequently  ninety  thousand  bundles  of  rice  in  the  sheaf  in  Hitachi, 
eighty  thousand  bundles  in  Tango,  and  ten  thousand  bundles  each  in 
Omi,  Yechu,  Bizeri,  and  lyo,  were  loaned  to  farmers  on  interest  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  provincial  governors,  and  interest  in  rice  was 
collected.  This  interest  was  applied  to  the  payment  of  miscellaneous 
expenses  of  the  university. 

Another  source  of  school  funds  was  provided  by  loaning  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  capital  new  coins,  whenever  they  were  made,  and  ap- 
propriating the  interest  on  the  loan  for  the  support  of  students.  In  the 
first  year  of  Tencho  (A.  D.  824)  five  chos  of  land  in  Yamashiro,  in  the 
fourth  year  fifty  chos  of  land  in  Kawachi,  and  in  the  seventh  year  thirty- 
seven  chos  of  uncultivated  land,  and  twenty  chos  of  unappropriated 
land  in  Omi,  were  granted  to  meet  the  expenditures  of  students. 

From  these  facts  we  may  form  an  idea  of  the  large  establishment 
of  the  university,  and  the  great  number  of  students  educated  in  it  at  this 
period. 

Public  lands  were  also  granted  to  the  departments  of  astrology  and 
medicine,  to  support  the  students,  as  in  the  case  of  the  university.  In 
the  third  year  of  Tencho,  twenty  chos  of  unappropriated  land  in  Ka- 
wachi were  granted  to  the  astrological  department ;  in  the  fourth  year  of 
"  Showa,"  a  piece  of  ground  in  the  northern  part  of  -Kioto  was  granted 
to  the  medical  department ;  in  the  sixth  year  a  piece  of  ground  for- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  63 

merly  belonging  to  the  eastern  "  Korokan,"  or  the  edifice  for  the  recep- 
tion of  foreigners,  was  converted  into  an  imperial  garden  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  medicinal  plants  ;  and  in  the  fifth  year  of  Jokan  an  unappropriated 
piece  of  land  in  Kawachi  was  added  to  the  astrological  department. 

Though  such  was  the  patronage  given  to  the  several  educational 
establishments  by  granting  lands  for  their  support  from  age  to  age,  the 
donations  came,  in  the  long  course  of  time,  to  be  improperly  managed, 
and  not  a  small  portion  of  uncultivated  and  unappropriated  lands  was 
neglected  to  be  cultivated,  or  entirely  wasted  by  floods.  So  also  in  the 
management  of  the  interest  on  the  loans  in  rice  and  new  coins,  many 
abuses  arose,  as  the  officials  in  charge  were  from  time  to  time  changed, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  came  to  fail  in  the  payment  of  the 
interest  on  the  loans  of  new  coins. 

In  the  eighth  year  of  Genkei  (884  A.  D.)  twenty-three  kans  of  new 
coins  were  loaned  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital,  the  interest  to  be 
employed  in  support  of  the  university,  in  compliance  with  the  request  of 
Fujiwara  Sukeyo,  the  superintendent.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  the 
educational  grant  was  at  length  transferred  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
repairing  roads,  and  other  lands  were  also  distributed  to  other  depart- 
ments, leaving  the  university,  once  so  flourishing,  to  almost  entire  ruin. 
It  is  seen  in  "  Daigakushiki,"  the  book  containing  the  regulations  of  the 
university,  that  these  funds  were,  however,  restored  in  consequence  of 
the  request  made  by  the  assistant  minister  of  the  Department  of  Cere- 
monies, who  stated  the  evils  to  the  emperor  in  the  fourteenth  year  of 
Yengi  (A.  D.  914). 

The  practice  of  granting  allowances  to  students,  to  enable  them  to 
engage  exclusively  in  study,  originated  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Kanmu  (A.  D.  782),  who  was  very  fond  of  learning,  and  who,  while  yet 
a  prince,  himself  filled  the  office  of  superintendent  of  the  university. 
On  his  ascending  the  throne,  he  appointed  Sugawara  Furuhito  his 
tutor,  requesting  him  always  to  attend  him,  and  treating  him  with  the 
respect  due  to  a  teacher.  After  the  death  of  Sugawara,  the  emperor, 
remembering  his  former  services,  and  regretting  that  his  four  sons  were 
prevented  by  their  poverty  from  pursuing  their  hereditary  profession, 


64 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


granted  them  an  allowance  for  the  necessaries  of  life  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Yenryaku,  and  thus  enabled  them  to  pursue  their  studies.  This  is  the 
first  instance  in  which  an  allowance  for  monthly  expenses  for  study  was 
granted. 

More  than  fifty  years  prior  to  this  period,  however,  in  the  second  year 
of  Tenpio  (A.  D.  630),  as  some  historians  say,  a  proposition  was  made  to 
the  emperor  and  the  imperial  council,  in  which  was  the  following  passage : 
"  Though  the  students  have  passed  some  length  of  time  in  the  uni- 
versity, they  are  still  unable  to  make  much  progress,  and  their  learning 
is  but  superficial,  owing  to  the  fact  that,  although  there  are  persons  fond 
of  study,  yet  they  are  prevented  from  accomplishing  their  object  by 
being  destitute  of  the  means  of  support.  .  .  .  Therefore,  it  is  requested 
that  the  necessaries  of  life  should  be  granted  to  those  who  are  intelligent 
and  much  advanced  in  study,  to  enable  them  to  engage  exclusively  in 
study.  .  .  .  It  is  desirable  that  the  students  in  the  departments  of  as- 
trology, medicine,  and  almanac-making,  should  also  be  supported,  as 
these  branches  of  knowledge  are  likewise  important  and  indispensable 
to  the  country ;  while  the  professors  of  these  sciences  are  now  declining 
in  age,  the  sciences  may  be  lost  forever  if  they  be  not  studied  and  trans- 
mitted to  posterity."  The  request  was  sanctioned  by  the  emperor. 

This  is  what  is  mentioned  in  some  histories,  but  as  it  seems  that  the 
educational  land  grant  was  not  yet  appropriated  •  at  this  period,  and 
students  were  to  get  their  supplies  from  their  own  homes,  the  origin  of 
the  practice  of  supplying  students  with  necessaries  is  to  be  dated  from 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kanmu,  instead  of  this  early  period. 

Since  that  time,  the  Sugawara  and  Oye  families  both  adopted  litera- 
ture as  their  hereditary  profession,  expenses  for  study  being  always 
granted  to  their  descendants.  An  instance  of  the  Suguwara  family 
making  application  for  expenses  for  study  is  found  in  the  tenth  year 
of  Tenreki  (A.  D.  956),  when  Sugawara  Fumitoki  applied  for  the  al- 
lowance for  his  son  Tadahiro  in  the  following  words  :  "  This  grant 
originated  in  my  family,  it  being  made  to  my  forefather  Kiyogimi,  and 
his  three  brothers,  at  the  same  time.  .  .  .  To  assist  one  to  succeed 
to  his  forefathers'  profession  is  the  boundless  benevolence  of  a  great 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  65 

patron  of  literature,  and  to  study  and  transmit  the  literary  profession  of 
one's  ancestors  is  the  duty  of  the  children  of  the  family.  .  .  .  For  this 
consideration  it  is  most  humbly  requested  that,  by  the  great  favor  of  the 
emperor,  the  monthly  allowance  be  granted  to  my  son  to  assist  him  in 
pursuing  his  hereditary  profession." 

In  the  second  year  of  Koho,  he  again  applied  for  an  allowance  to 
meet  the  expenses  for  study  of  his  second  son. 

We  also  find  the  Oye  family  applying  for  the  grant  in  the  fourth  year 
of  Ghoho,  when  Oye  Masahira  made  the  following  request  in  applying 
for  the  expenses  of  study  for  his  son  Yoshigimi,  to  enable  him  to  succeed 
to  the  hereditary  profession  in  the  sixth  generation  :  "  In  consideration 
of  the  services  of  the  Sugawara  and  Oye  families  in  founding  a  college 
of  literature,  to  which  students  constantly  resorted  for  many  years  for 
instruction  in  literature,  the  children  of  the  two  families  enjoyed  the 
privilege  of  being  taken  into  the  imperial  service,  without  regard  to  their 
abilities  and  ages,  so  that  Sugawara  Tamenori  was  appointed  to  office 
in  the  seventh  generation  from  his  ancestor ;  and  though  Taka-oka 
Sukeyuki,  Kamo  Yasutaka,  etc.,  were  men  of  high  talents  and  ac- 
quirements, they  made  no  opposition  to  his  appointment ;  and  so  also 
with  the  appointment  of  Oye  Sadamoto,  which  was  never  disputed  by 
the  most  learned  men  of  the  age,  such  as  Taguchi  Tokina  and  Yuge 
Koretoki,  who  were  skilled  in  prose  composition.  .  .  .  Such  being  the 
honor  done  to  the  hereditary  profession,  it  is  humbly  requested  that  the 
expenses  for  study  be  granted  to  my  son  Yoshigimi,  to  enable  him  to 
succeed  early  to  the  hereditary  profession." 

In  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Jito  (A.  D.  693)  a  re- 
ward of  one  thousand  bundles  of  rice  in  the  sheaf  was  given  to  Kami- 
kudara,  the  professor  of  the  university,  for  the  encouragement  of  liter- 
ary learning,  and  twenty  rios  of  silver  were  given  as  a  reward  to  each 
of  the  professors  of  Chinese  sounds  and  of  penmanship.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  grant  of  land  was  made  to  Kamikudara,  and  in  the  seventh 
year  a  salary  in  land,  amounting  to  thirty  ko's  (land-measure  formerly 
used)  was  again  granted  to  him.  The  practice  of  granting  rewards  to 
professional  men  originated  at  this  period. 


66  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

In  the  fourth  year  of  Keiun  (A.  D.  707),  cloth,  hoes,  salt,  and  iron, 
were  given  to  Yamada  Mikata.  In  the  first  year  of  Reiki  (A.  D.  715), 
Kino  Kiyohito,  and  several  others,  were  each  rewarded  with  ten  thousand 
kokus  of  rice.  In  the  first  year  of  Yoro  (A.  D.  717),  ten  thousand  kokus 
of  rice  were  again  given  to  Kiyohito,  and  some  rewards  were  also  given 
to  other  professional  men.  In  the  fifth  year  of  Yoro  (A.  D.  721),  an  im- 
perial decree  was  issued  that,  "  as  men  of  the  literary  profession  as  well 
as  military  men  are  of  great  importance  to  the  state,  and  medicine  and 
mathematics  are  also  cherished  in  all  ages,  persons  who  are  qualified  as 
instructors,  being  learned  in  literature  or  science,  should  be  selected  and 
honored  with  rewards  so  as  to  stimulate  young  scholars."  Accordingly, 
the  professors  of  the  university,  astronomers,  astrologers,  physicians, 
and  mathematicians,  numbering  twenty-eight  persons,  were  rewarded  in 
different  proportions.  In  the  following  year  a  quantity  of  rice-land  was 
distributed  among  twenty-three  persons  as  a  reward. 

During  the  period  of  Tenpeihoji  (A.  p.  757),  it  was  decreed  that  pro- 
fessors of  the  provincial  schools,  and  physicians,  when  first  appointed 
to  their  offices,  should  each  send  one  year's  income  to  their  former 
teachers  as  a  token  of  gratitude  ;  whereby  the  respect  due  to  teachers 
would  be  kept  up,  and  the  work  of  instruction  continually  performed. 
In  the  fifth  year  of  Showa  (A.  D.  838),  an  imperial  decree  was  issued 
that,  "  according  to  the  established  regulations,  professors  and  physicians 
in  every  province  are  each  to  send  one  year's  income  to  their  former 
teachers  from  the  time  of  their  appointments  ;  but,  complaint  being  apt 
to  arise  when  a  whole  year's  salary  is  exacted,  a  proper  rate  is  there- 
fore to  be  fixed  for  them  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  provinces  :  two 
hundred  bundles  of  rice  in  the  straw  in  the  first-class  provinces,  and 
fifty  bundles  in  the  lowest-class  provinces,  should  be  made  the  fixed 
rate,  and  these  should  be  sent,  after  being  exchanged  for  articles  of  a 
light  kind  of  the  products  of  the  respective  provinces.  .  .  .  Those  sent 
from  professors  should  be  sent  to  the  university,  and  those  from  physi- 
cians to  the  medical  department."  In  the  twelfth  year  of  Jokan,  a  mod- 
ification was  made  in  this  regulation,  and  one-tenth  of  the  amount  of 
income  was  made  the  fixed  rate.  This  was  made  the  permanent  rule, 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  67 

being  embodied    in  the  regulations  established   during  the  years   of 
Yengi. 

Regulations  of  the  University. — The  subjects  of  instruction  in  the 
university  were  divided  into  the  following  departments  : 

1.  KIDEN. — The  principal  subject  of  study  being  history,  and  the  art 
of  composition. 

2.  MEIKEI. — The  principal  subject  of  study  being  the  six  Chinese 
classical  books  and  the  annotated  editions  of  the  constitutional  history 
of  China. 

3.  MEIHO. — In  this  department  books  on  penal  law,  and  the  books 
of  the  imperial  edicts,  together  with  the  books  of  rules  and  regulations 
for  officials,  were  principally  studied. 

4.  SANDO. — In  this  department  arithmetic  and  mathematics  were 
exclusively  studied. 

When  the  imperial  mandates  were  codified  during  the  years  of 
Taiho  (A.  D.  701-703),  a  professorship  was  established  under  the  title  ot 
Dai-hakase,  or  great  professor,  and  this  professor  had  duties  both  in  the 
departments  of  history  and  the  Chinese  classics.  Subsequently  these  de- 
partments were  divided  each  into  'separate  subjects  of  instruction,  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  professorships. 

The  following  list  of  professors  is  mentioned  in  a  document  con- 
cerning the  rewards  given  to  professional  men  in  the  fifth  year  of  Yoro 
(A.  D.  721),  viz. : 

First-class  professors  in  the  Chinese  classics :  Kanuchi  Osumi,  and 
Ochi-hiroyo. 

Second-class  professors  in  the  same  branch  :  Sena  Yukibumi,  Tsu- 
ki  Furumaro,  Nukata  Chitari. 

Professors  of  law  :  Yazu  Mushimaro,  Shi-oya  Yoshimaro. 

Professors  of  the  art  of  composition :  Yamada  Mikata,  Shimotsuke 
Mushimaro,  Kino  Kiyohito,  and  Sazanami  Kawachi. 

Professors  of  mathematics  :  Yamaguchi  Tanushi,  Shikino  Mitatsuki, 
and  Kisakibe  Iwamura. 

Professors  of  astrology :  Otsu  Opito,  Tsumori  Michigimo,  Naka- 
bumi  Yemaro,  Yoshin-shoshe,  afld  Shigabe  Amicla. 


63  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY.    OF 

Professors  of  medicine  :  Kitusen,  Goshiku,  Komei,  Taichogen,  and 
Yega  Kunishige. 

The  department  of  historical  study  and  the  art  of  composition  be- 
ing considered  from  an  early  period  the  most  difficult  one,  it  was  as- 
signed to  the  first  place.  The  department  of  law  was  established  for 
studying  laws  and  jurisprudence,  and  Mushimaro  and  Furumaro  were 
appointed  professors  of  this  branch,  to  arrange  laws  and  edicts.  Be- 
sides, there  were  professors  of  the  sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters,  and 
of  penmanship,  who  instructed  pupils  in  these  respective  branches. 

Every  student  was  at  first  instructed  to  read  the  classical  books  with 
the  correct  sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters,  under  the  instruction  of  the 
professor ;  there  was  therefore  no.  separate  class  of  students  for  the  study 
of  that  art ;  and  so  also  with  penmanship.  But  at  a  subsequent  period 
those  students  who  exclusively  engaged  in  studying  the  sounds  of 
the  Chinese  characters  and  penmanship  came  to  form  each  a  distinct 
class,  under  the  titles  of  "  students  of  the  sounds  of  letters"  and  "  stu- 
dents of  penmanship."  Yenshin,  a  native  of  To  (China),  being  well 
versed  in  the  sounds  of  the  Chinese  characters,  was  appointed  by  the 
imperial  orders  professor  of  the  art.  In  the  seventh  year  of  Tenpio 
(A.  D.  735)  every  student  was  ordered  to  study  the  sounds  under  his 
instruction. 

As  characters  were  first  introduced  from  Corea,  the  Go-On  (corrupt 
sound  used  probably  by  the  natives  of  the  eastern  part  of  China)  was 
mostly  used  instead  of  Kuan-On  (pure  sound),  both  in  speaking  and 
reading. 

In  a  wofk  about  the  island  Tsushima,  it  is  mentioned  that  there 
lived  a  nun  in  the  island  who  taught  the  inhabitants  the  sacred  books 
of  Buddhism  in  the  Go-On;  and  consequently  these  sounds  came  to  be 
exclusively  used  in  reading  the  Chinese  classical  books  ;  hence  origi- 
nated the  name  Tsushima-On,  or  the  sounds  used  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Tsushima.  This  is  the  reason  that  the  professorship  of  the  pure  sounds 
of  the  Chinese  characters  was  established.  Although  the  rule  for  pro- 
nouncing the  Chinese  characters  was  for  the  first  time  settled  on  the 
return  of  Kibi-mabi  from  China,  wherB  he  had  been  educated,  the  use 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  69 

of  the  corrupt  sounds  was  by  no  means  discontinued.  To  remedy  this 
evil  a  decree  was  issued,  by  the  emperor,  to  the  effect  that  all  the  stu- 
dents in  the  department  of  Chinese  classics  should  be  thoroughly  edu- 
cated in  the  use  of  the  proper  sounds  of  Chinese.  At  a  later  period 
the  rule  was  fixed  that  the  Kuan-On  should  be  used  in  reading  books  of 
Confucianism,  and  the  Go-On  in  books  of  Buddhism  only ;  but  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  Yenriyaku  an  imperial  decree  was  issued  prohibiting  the 
admission  of  any  candidate  to  the  priesthood  unless  he  had  learned  to 
use  the  Kuan-On.  In  the  twentieth  year  it  was  again  decreed  that  in 
the  annual  examination  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood  only  those  who, 
being  intelligent  and  respectable  in  conduct,  and  also  learned  in  the 
use  of  the  Kuan-On,  were  qualified  to  be  priests,  or  be  admitted  to  the 
priesthood.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  Kuan-On  was  not  preferred  in 
reading  books  of  Confucianism  only. 

In  the  fifth  year  of  Jinki  (A.  D.  728)  professorships  of  criminal  law 
and  jurisprudence,  and  also  a  lectureship,  were  established.  This  is  the 
beginning  of  the  professorship  of  each  distinct  branch  of  knowledge 
being  made  a  permanent  office.  In  the  second  year  of  Tenpio  stu- 
dents were  chosen  to  be  instructed  in  these  branches  of  knowledge. 
Those  who  exclusively,  engaged  in  historical  study  were  called  historical 
students,  and  those  engaged  in  studying  the  Chinese  classics  were 
called  classical  students.  There  was  a  class  of  students  called  Toku- 
giosei  (fellows)  in  each  branch  of  study,  with  the  privilege  of  being  fur- 
nished with  clothes  for  all  seasons.  A  certain  number  of  those  who 
were  most  talented  and  accomplished  in  each  branch  were  put  into 
this  class.  Their  term  of  study  was  seven  years. 

In  the  medical  department  students  were  instructed  to  read  the 
books  on  medicinal  plants,  the  treatise  on  the  state  of  pulsation,  and  the 
treatises  on  the  human  body.  The  principal  subject  of  the  study  of 
medical  plants  referred  to  their  forms  and  properties.  The  anatomy  of 
the  human  body  was  studied  by  examining  diagrams.  The  conditions 
and  movements  of  the  pulse  as  affected  by  the  temperature  of  the  sea- 
sons were  learned.  The  students  were  also  to  read  different  Chinese 
medical  books  for  two  years.  After  having  gone  through  this  course 


7o  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

of  study  they  then  proceeded  to  solve  the  meaning  of  what  they  had 
learned,  and  to  perform  practical  operations.  Medical  treatment  was 
divided  into  several  branches — namely,  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
internal  parts  of  the  body;  the  treatment  of  incised  wounds,  ulcers, 
and  all  other  diseases  belonging  to  external  parts  of  the  body;  the 
treatment  of  the  diseases  of  infants ;  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
ear,  eye,  mouth,  and  teeth.  Forty  students  were  distributed  to  these 
branches,  twenty-four  being  assigned  to  the  study  of  internal  diseases, 
with  a  term  of  study  of  seven  years,  of  which  the  first  four  years 
were  to  be  applied  to  initiatory  studies,  and  three  more  were  assigned 
to  diseases  of  the  eye,  ear,  and  mouth.  Besides  these,  there  were  stu- 
dents of  acupuncture,  students  of  shampooing,  and  physicians  of  the 
diseases  of  women.  The  students  of -acupuncture  were  to  study  the 
art  by  reading  and  examining  the  treatise  of  Kotei  on  acupuncture, 
and  the  diagram  of  the  human  skeleton,  the  term  of  study  of  seven 
years  being  allowed  to  them.  The  students  of  shampooing  were  in- 
structed in  the  art  of  treating  bruises  and  fractures,  and  in  bandaging 
wounds,  three  years  being  their  term  of  study.  The  physicians  of  the 
diseases  of  women  were  instructed  to  assist  women  in  childbirth,  and 
also  to  treat  incised  wounds,  ulcers,  and  bruises.  They  were  also  to 
study  the  practice  of  acupuncture  and  of  applying  moxa.  In  studying 
these  arts  they  were  not  required  to  read  books  treating  of  them,  but 
merely  to  learn  the  practical  operations.  Accordingly,  the  professor  of 
diseases  of  women  taught  the  students  only  by  giving  them  lessons 
orally  from  books.  The  term  of  study  of  this  class  was  seven  years. 

The  same  ceremonies  for  admission  were  required,  and  the  same 
privileges  allowed  to  these  students  as  to  the  students  of  the  uni- 
versity. 

The  students  of  medicine  and  acupuncture  were  to  be  chosen  first 
from  among  the  children  of  the  families  Who  belonged  hereditarily  to 
the  medical  profession,  and  next  from  among  the  children  of  the  people 
at  large.  Children  who  were  intelligent  and  aged  between  thirteen  and 
sixteen  were  to  be  chosen.  As  to  the  physicians  of  the  diseases  of 
women,  those  who  were  intelligent  and  aged  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  7r 

were  chosen  from  among  the  maids  of  the  court,  and  they  were,  when 
chosen,  placed  in  a  separate  building. 

The  students  of  literature  were  examined  once  a  month  by  the  pro- 
fessors, once  a  season  by  the  superintendent  or  assistant  superintendent 
of  the  university,  and  at  the  end  of.  the  year  they  were  examined  by  the 
Department  of  the  Imperial  Household.  The  physicians  of  diseases  of 
women  were  examined  by  the  court  physicians,  and  the  mode  of  exam- 
ination was  precisely  the  same  as  that  in  use  at  the  university.  Those 
who  had  failed  in  the  examination  in  theoretical  learning,  but  who  mani- 
fested practical  abilities,  and  were  able  to  treat  diseases,  were  allowed  to 
practise  acupuncture.  Any  person  who  studied  and  practised  the  med- 
ical art  was  allowed  to  enter  and  undergo  an  examination  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  regular  students.  The  number  of  "  fellows  "  in  the  medical 
department  was  three  in  the  second  year  of  Tenpio ;  but  in  the  fifth 
year  of  Konin  the  number  was  increased  to  four,  and  the  same  supply 
of  provisions  and  clothes  and  the  same  term  of  study  were  allowed  to 
them  as  those  in  the  university.  This  increase  was  in  consequence  of  a 
proposition  then  made  that  "  medicine  and  acupuncture  are  of  great 
importance  to  the  country,  while  it  is  feared  that  these  arts  should 
decline  and  professors  of  the  arts  might  become  extinct  at  length,  if  their 
study  be  not  encouraged." 

The  tasks  and  term  of  study  of  medical  students  in  the  provincial 
schools  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  medical  department  in  the  capital. 
They  were  examined  by  physicians  of  the  provinces  once  a  month, 
and  at  the  end  of  every  year  they  were  examined  by  the  provincial  gov- 
ernors, who  fixed  their  grades  according  to  their  abilities.  Those  stu- 
dents who  were  much  advanced,  if  they  desired  to  be  employed,  were 
reported  to  the  Imperial  Council,  as  to  their  abilities,  by  the  provincial 
governors,  and  were  taken  into  the  imperial  service. 

In  the  department  of  astronomy,  the  relative  position  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  the  five  planets,  and  the  twenty-eight  constellations,  and  various 
phenomena  of  the  atmosphere,  were  observed,  in  order  to  foretell  the 
good  or  evil  fortunes  likely  to  occur  during  the  year.  The  astronomical 
portions  of  Chinese  History  were  studied. 


7  2  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

In  the  astrological  department  future  events  were  divined,  and  modes 
of  avoiding  evil  influences  were  determined.  The  Chinese  books  of 
divination,  etc.,  were  the  text-books. 

In  the  branch  of  almanac-making,  calculations  of  the  motion  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  stars,  were  made,  and  the  number  of  days  and  months, 
etc.,  in  the  year,  was  published. 

The  text-books  were  the  astronomical  portions  of  Chinese  histories. 
Students  were  chosen  first  from  among  the  children  of  the  families 
hereditarily  professing  divination,  and  then  from  among  the  children  of 
the  people  at  large,  in  the  same  manner  as  medical  students.  Their 
tasks,  term  of  study,  and  ages,  were  fixed  by  the  same  rule  as  that  in 
the  university.  The  fixed  number  of  "  fellows  "  was  three  in  the  astro- 
logical department,  and  two  in  the  department  of  almanac-making, 
their  privileges,  etc.,  being  the  same  as  those  in  the  university. 

There  were  provided  celestial  globes  and  other  astronomical  instru- 
ments for  the  use  of  the  students.  There  was  a  distinct  class  of  stu- 
dents under  the  title  of  "observers,"  who  were  always  to  observe  the 
aspects  of  the  heavens  and  watch  .the  various  phenomena  of  the  atmos- 
phere, not  being  permitted  to  read  books  of  any  sort.  Their  term  of 
study  was  not  fixed,  and  the  same  supply  of  provisions  and  clothes  as 
was  allowed  to  "  fellows  "  was  granted  to  them. 

The  almanac  was  always  to  be  prepared  in  advance  by  computing 
the  times  beforehand,  and  to  be  presented  to  the  emperor  .by  the  first 
day  of  the  eleventh  month.  One  copy  was  sent  to  every  official  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  reach  him  within  the  year. 

It  was  in  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (A.  D. 
604)  that  the  almanac  was  first  used.  The  almanac  then  used  was  that 
of  the  Zui  dynasty,  in  China,  introduced  by  a  priest  of  Corea.  It  being 
at  a  later  period  found  to  be  incorrect,  another  almanac  was  adopted  in 
the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Jito  (A.  D.  695).  After  being 
used  for  five  years,  this  almanac  was  found  to  be  behind  the  true  time 
by  fifty-three  kokus  (a  koku  being  one  hundredth  of  twenty-four  hours). 
Consequently,  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Monmu  a 
new  almanac  was  adopted  and  used  for  sixty-seven  years,  till  the  eighth 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  73 

year  of  Tempeihoji,  when  it  was  found  to  be  behind  the  true  time  by 
fourteen  kokus,  and  was  replaced  by  the  almanac  which  had  been  pre- 
sented to  the  emperor  by  Kibimabi.  This  being  found  in  the  course  of 
fourteen  years  to  be  ahead  of  the  true  time  by  seventeen  kokus,  an- 
other almanac  was  adopted  in  the  second  year  of  Ten-an,  which  was 
also  found  after  only  four  years'  time  to  be  behind  the  true  time  by  ten 
kokus.  In  the  fourth  year  of  Jokan,  another  new  almanac  was  adopted, 
and  continued  to  be  in  use  for  eight  hundred  and  twenty-three  years 
without  being  altered.  These  almanacs  were  brought  from  China  under 
the  Zui  and  To  dynasties,  and  none  was  originally  composed  in  this 
country. 

In  the  second  year  of  Jokio  a  student  of  astronomy  named  Yasui 
Santetsu,  a  native  of  Yedo,  corrected,  by  permission  of  the  Govern- 
ment, the  almanac  then  in  use,  on  account  of  its  being  behind  the  true 
time  by  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  kokus.  This,  again,  in  the  course 
of  seventy  years,  came  to'  be  ahead  of  the  true  time  by  seven  kokus. 
Therefore  a  new  almanac  was  made  by  making  new  calculations  of 
time  in  the  fifth  year  of  Horeki.  After  the  lapse  of  forty-three  years  it 
fell  behind  the  true  time  by  four  kokus.  So  in  the  tenth  year  of  Kuan- 
sei  another  almanac  was  adopted,  but  after  a  time,  a  slight  error  being 
found  in  it,  a  new  one  was  adopted  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Tenpo 
(A.  D.  1843),  and  was  used  until  the  adoption  of  the  solar  year  instead 
of  the  lunar  one  used  heretofore,  which  took  place  in  the  fifth  year  of 
Meiji  (A.  D.  1872).  The  time  contained  in  the  year  was  then  for  the 
first  time  made  to  correspond  to  the  true  time. 

Regulations  of  Provincial  Schools. — Though  the  educational  in- 
stitutions in  the  provinces  were  founded  on  the  same  system  as  that  of 
the  university,  the  medical  department,  the  astrological  department, 
etc.,  they  were  found  defective,  arising  from  the  inability  of  the  teach- 
ers. To  remedy  the  evil,  an  imperial  decree  was  issued  in  the  second 
year  of  Keiki,  that  the  professorships  of  the  provincial  schools  should 
not  be  filled  by  those  students  of  the  university  who  used  to  hunt  for 
office  while  they  were  yet  imperfectly  learned.  Notwithstanding,  this 
office  continued  to  be  hunted  by  persons  unqualified  for  the  station, 
4 


74 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


and  consequently  many  were  found  among  the  teachers  who  were  not 
yet  sufficiently  learned.  This  led  to  the  issue  of  another  imperial  de- 
cree, proclaimed  in  the  first  year  of  Tenpeihoji  (A.  D.  757),  to  the  effect 
that  "  many  of  the  professors  and  physicians  in  the  several  prov- 
inces are  found  to  have  obtained  their  offices,  not  by  virtue  of  their 
abilities,  but  merely  by  begging  them.  .  .  .  This,  being  not  only  an 
impediment  to  the  administration  of  government,  but  also  a  disad- 
vantage to  the  people,  should  be  put  an  end  to.  ...  Students  hereafter 
will  not  be  admitted  into  the  public  service  unless  they  have  learned 
all  the  books  required  to  be  studied  in  their  respective  offices.  .  .  .  The 
students  of  the  Chinese  classics  should  have  studied  the  five  classical 
books  ;  the  students  of  history  the  three  histories ;  the  students  of 
medicine,  astronomy,  etc.,  each  must  have  studied  the  works  prescribed 
for  his  course." 

The  above  was  the  established  rule  for  selecting  and  appointing  the 
students  of  the  university  to  the  offices  of  professors  and  physicians  in 
the  provinces,  but  many  of  the  books  above  mentioned  were  not  pro- 
vided in  the  provincial  schools. 

Thus  in  the  third  year  of  Jingo-keiun  (A.  D.  769)  an  application  was 
made  by  the  city  of  Dazai  for  the  supply  of  the  three  histories,  stating 
that  "  the  city  of  Dazai,  being  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country, 
and  its  population  being  so  dense,  the  number  of  students  is  constantly 
increasing,  while  books  .supplied  for  their  use  consist  only  of  the  five 
classical  books,  while  the  three  histories  are  not  as  yet  provided.  .  .  . 
Therefore,  it  is  requested  that  one  copy  of  the  three  histories  be  sup- 
plied in  order  to  give  encouragement  to  education  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Dazai  Government."  In  compliance  with  the  request  one 
copy  each  of  the  three  histories  of  Go,  Gi,  and  Shoku,  or  the  history  of 
Shin,  was  ordered  by  the  emperor  to  be  supplied  to  the  city  of  Dazai. 
Subsequently  imperial  orders  were  given  to  the  provinces  of  Sagami, 
Musashi,  Hitachi,  Kotsuke,  Shimotsuke,  and  Mutsu,  to  make  copies  of 
the  three  histories  and  to  send  them  to  the  Government.  These  facts 
show  the  scarcity  of  books  in  those  days. 

In  the  eleventh  year  of  Tenpio  (A.  D.  739)  the  children  -of  noble 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  75 

families  above  the  fifth  rank  in  the  Department  of  Ceremonies  were 
ordered  to  be  admitted  to  the  university  without  distinction  as  to  their 
ages.  According  to  the  old  rule  established  during  the  years  of  Taiho, 
the  choice  of  students  was  limited  to  the  children  of  families  above  the 
fifth  rank,  and  to  those  of  families  not  below  the  eighth  rank,  who  par- 
ticularly desired  to  be  admitted,  and  to  those  of  the  hereditary  literary 
families,  and  their  ages  were  limited  from  thirteen  to  sixteen,  in  all 
branches  of  knowledge.  Now  that  the  limit  of  admittance  was  ex- 
tended, the  number  of  students  became  greatly  increased,  so  that  the 
Empress  Koken  appropriated  some  lands  for  the  support  of  the  stu- 
dents, under  the  title  of  the  "Educational  Land-Grant." 

In  the  eighth  year  of  Yenriyaki  (A.  D.  789)  regulations  were  estab- 
lished by  which  appointments  of  students  of  the  university  to  any  office 
should  not  take  place  under  the  age  of  thirty.  In  the  thirteenth  year 
a  large  extent  of  land  was  appropriated  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the 
university.  In  the  first  year  of  Daido  all  the  royal  princes  and  the  chil- 
dren of  families  above  the  fifth  rank  who  were  above  ten  years  of  age 
were  made  to  enter  the  university  to  be  educated  in  the  various  branches 
of  knowledge  assigned  to  them,  but,  owing  to  the  diversity  of  charac- 
ter of  students,  and  the  consequently  various  propensities  possessed  by 
them  for  particular  pursuits,  many  were  found  to  be  unable  to  succeed 
even  in  a  single  branch  of  knowledge  after  having  passed  many  years 
in  study.  On  this  account  an  arrangement  was  made  by  an  imperial 
decree  issued  for  that  purpose  in  the  first  year  of  Tencho,  by  which 
they  were  allowed  to  choose  themselves  those  pursuits  which  they 
thought  most  suited  to  their  tastes  and  propensities.  After  thirteen 
years  from  this  period  a  petition  was  sent  to  the  emperor  from  the  uni- 
versity, stating  that,  "  on  account  of  the  edict  which  has  long  been  in 
operation,  excluding  students  under  thirty  years  of  age  from  employ- 
ment, there  are  found  many  who,  though  most  earnestly  devoted  to 
Confucianism  and  most  diligently  applying  themselves  to  study,  still  are 
suffering  from  poverty,  not  being  allowed  to  be  employed  for  many 
years  after  having  accomplished  their  study.  .  .  .  There  seems  no  rea- 
son why  age  should  be  taken  into  consideration  when  talent  is  the 


76  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

main  question,  and  it  is  requested  that  the  students  be  admitted  into 
Government  service  on  examination  as  to  their  abilities  according  to  the 
former  rules." 

The  request  was  sanctioned  by  the  emperor. 

All  young  persons  aged  over  twenty,  belonging  to  families  above 
the  fifth  rank,  were  ordered  to  enter  the  university  to  be  educated  to 
read  classical  and  historical  works,  and  those  who  made  such  progress 
as  to  be  fit  to  be  employed  were  appointed  to  different  offices  according 
to  their  abilities.  This  arrangement  was  made  in  consequence  of  the 
young  men  of  noble  families  coming  gradually  to  indulge  themselves  in 
luxury  and  license,  instead  of  applying  themselves  to  study.  At  a  later 
period,  great  families,  such  as  Fujiwara  and  Tachibana,  established 
private  schools  for  the  education  of  young  persons  belonging  to  their 
respective  families.  When  the  students  of  law  and  literature  were  first 
chosen  in  the  second  year  of  Tenpio,  their  fixed  numbers  were  ten  and 
twenty  in  those  two  classes  respectively.  In  the  twenty-first  year  the 
number  of  students  of  the  former  class  was  increased  to  twenty ;  and  in 
the  fourth  year  of  Konin,  in  consideration  of  more  difficulty  attending 
the  study  of  the  law-class  than  any  other  kind  of  study,  and  with  the 
view  of  giving  encouragement  to  those  students  who,  it  was  found, 
might  be  wearied  out  and  prevented  from  finishing  their  study  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  their  tasks,  a  change  was  introduced  in  the 
regulations  for  examination,  by  which  the  old  rule  of  admitting  into 
public  service  only  those  who  gave  satisfactory  answers  to  eight  points 
or  more  out  of  ten  proposed  in  the  examination,  and  excluding  all  those 
who  could  not  give  answers  to  more  than  seven  points,  was  replaced 
by  a  new  rule  of  appointing  all  those  who  were  able  to  give  answers  on 
more  than  seven  points  to  the  professors  of  the  provincial  schools.  In 
choosing  the  students  of  the  literature-class,  all  intelligent  children  of 
the  gentry  might  be  chosen,  not  limiting  their  ages ;  but,  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  Konin,  a  regulation  was  established  prohibiting  the  selection  of 
children  of  any  other  families  than  those  above  the  third  rank.  Those 
moderately  advanced  in  study,  among  the  students,  were  to  form  a  class 
called  "  Shunshi "  (literally,  men  of  talent),  and  the  most  intelligent  of 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN,  77 

this  class  were  distinguished  under  the  title  of  "Shusai"  (literally,  men 
of  rare  talent).  This  regulation  for  examination  remained  unaltered ; 
hence  the  admittance  to  the  Shusai  class,  and  the  study  of  the  art  of 
composition,  were  limited  to  the  children  of  noble  families,  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  other  students. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  Tencho  (A.  D.  827),  Miyako  Haraka,  the  pro- 
fessor of  the  art  of  composition,  requested  the  emperor  to  alter  the  rule 
for  choosing  students,  stating  that  "  it  is  feared  that  scholars  of  the  art 
of  composition  may  cease  to  be  produced,  if  this  branch  of  study  be,  as 
it  now  is,  limited  to  men  of  high  birth  only,  since  men  of  noble  birth 
cannot  be  expected  always  to  be  men  of  talent,  nor  are  men  of  great 
talent  necessarily  of  noble  birth.  Still  more,  the  university  is  a  place 
where  talent  ought  to  be  cherished  and  intelligence  nourished ;  and, 
besides,  what  the  scholars  consider  their  hope  and  honor  is,  that  talent 
alone  is  cared  for  by  rulers  in  choosing  men,  so  that  one  who  is  a  mere 
common  domestic  in  the  morning  may  be  raised  to  the  station  of  minis- 
ter of  state  in  the  evening.  For  these  reasons  it  is  humbly  requested 
that  students  should  be  permitted  to  be  chosen  according  to  the  regula- 
tion established  in  the  second  year  of  Tenpio." 

In  former  times,  whenever  embassadors  were  sent  to  the  courts  of 
the  Zui  or  To  dynasty  (China),  scholars  who  possessed  intellect  and 
knowledge  were  selected  to  follow  them.  Takamuku  Kuromasa,  etc., 
were  the  first  students  sent  to  China  in  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko 
(A.  D.  593-628),  and  after  that  time  students  were  often  sent. 

In  the  second  year  of  Reiki  (A.  D.  716),  Abe  Nakamaro  and  Kibi- 
mabi  were  chosen  as  students  to  be  sent  to  China,  and  they  studied  the 
Chinese  classics  and  other  branches  of  learning  with  success,  and 
obtained  great  reputation  for  their  knowledge  in  that  country,  The 
latter  returned  in  the  seventh  year  of  Tenpio,  after  having  remained  in 
China  for  eighteen  years,  and  presented  to  the  emperor  books  treating 
on  the  etiquette  of  the  To  dynasty  and  almanac-making.  He  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  superintendent  of  the  university. 

The  ceremonies  to  be  performed  at  the  festival  of  Confucius  were 
settled  by  his  dictation,  and  all  the  instruments  to  be  used  on  the  occa- 


7 8  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

sion  were  also  completed  under  his  superintendence ;  thus  the  forms 
and  etiquette  came  for  the  first  time  to  be  performed  with  propriety. 
He  was  honored  with  the  appointment  of  Udaijin  (one  of  the  highest 
officers  in  the  government),  and  died  in  the  sixth  year  of  Hoki.  Naka- 
maro  adopted  the  name  of  Choko  and  died  in  China,  having  been  in  the 
sen-ice  of  the  court  of  that  country  for  more  than  fifty  years. 

After  a  while,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  Yenriyaku,  Tachibana 
Hayanari  was  sent  to  China  as  a  student,  and  was  respected  as  the 
"  talented  Tachibana." 

Embassadors  to  the  court  of  the  To  dynasty  ceased  to  be  sent  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Kanpio,  on  account  of  the  fall  of  that  dynasty.  Conse- 
quently the  sending  of  students  to  China  was  also  discontinued. 

Educational  Institutions  and  Libraries  at  Kioto. — The  Emperor 
Kanmu  (A.  D.  782-805)  founded  the  imperial  castle,  in  Yamashiro, 
which  he  made  the  seat  of  government,  divided  the  city  now  known  as 
Kioto  into  two  parts,  constructed  streets,  and  built  edifices  for  various 
departments  of  government.  He  also  established  the  university  with 
capacious  school-rooms  and  abodes  for  students,  in  a  locality  in  the 
southern  portion.  He  also  instituted  medical  and  astrological  depart- 
ments, with  professors  and  students  in  each.  These  institutions  were 
full  of  students,  and  enjoyed  a  notable  degree  of  prosperity. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Emperors  Saga,  Junna,  Ninmio,  and  Montoku 
(A.  D.  810-858),  education  received  constant  attention,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  men  of  great  talent  and  learning  was  produced.  However,  after 
the  middle  ages  the  literary  profession  became  an  hereditary  calling  and 
was  pursued  by  certain  families,  and  the  offices  of  superintendent, 
assistant  superintendent,  and  professors  in  the  university,  medical  and 
astrological  departments,  were  not  by  the  established  rule  to  be  filled  by 
other  than  the  persons  belonging  to  these  privileged  families.  Thus  the 
art  of  composition  and  the  study  of  history  were  the  exclusive  profes- 
sion of  the  Sugawara  and  Oye  families ;  the  study  of  law,  that  of  the 
Sakano-uye  and  Nakahara  families.  The  offices  of  judge,  and  of  police- 
man, were  also  to  be  held  by  these  two  families  ;  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics belonged  to  the  Mi-yoshi  and  Kotsuki  families,  and  medicine 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  79 

to  the  Wage  and  Niwa  families.  Astrology  was  formerly  professed 
only  by  the  Kamo  family,  but,  in  the  year  of  Tenyen  (A.  D.  973-975), 
Kamo  Yasunori  instructed  his  son  Mitsuyoshi  in  almanac-making,  and 
his  pupil  Abe  Seimei  in  astronomy  ;  hence  the  profession  of  astrology 
became  divided  between  the  two  families.  The  hereditary  profession 
was  most  successfully  kept  up  in  the  Sugawara  family,  from  which  men 
of  great  talent  and  learning  successively  sprung  up  and  instructed  their 
pupils  in  the  school  which  had  been  built  by  the  family.  This  is  the 
first  private  school  ever  founded  in  this  country,  and  was  followed  by 
other  schools  of  like  character. 

The  school  founded  by  Sugawara,  the  professor  of  the  art  of  com- 
position, in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  Konin  (A.  D.  823),  consisted 
of  two  buildings  constructed  in  the  compound  of  the  university,  to 
accommodate  the  students  of  the  art  of  composition  and  history. 

In  the  early  period  of  Showa  the  school  was  placed  under  the  divided 
superintendence  of  Oye  Otohito  and  Sugawara  Kiyogimi ;  the  former 
superintending  the  eastern  building,  and  the  latter  the  western.  All 
young  men  of  different  families  who  wanted  public  employment  flocked 
to  these  two  families  to  receive  instruction,  so  that  this  school  was  the 
most  populous  one  of  the  time. 

A  school  was  founded  by  Fujiwara  Fuyutsugu  in  the  second  year  of 
Tencho.  He  built  the  school  for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  youth 
of  his  family,  which  had  greatly  increased,  and  appropriated  a  piece  of 
land  measuring  one  thousand  ko's  for  the  support  of  the  school.  He 
also  purchased  a  certain  extent  of  rice-land  for  the  same  purpose. 
This  school,  being  located  in  the  southern  direction  of  the  university, 
was  called  the  southern  hall,  in  distinction  from  the  eastern  and 
western  halls.  Fuyutsugu  also  founded  a  charity-hospital,  to  receive 
and  maintain  poor  persons  of  his  family.  After  his  death  the  income 
from  the  land  appropriated  for  the  support  of  the  school  became 
insufficient  to  meet  expenses.  His  son  Yoshifiisa,  regretting  the  decline 
of  the  school,  made  an  application  to  the  emperor,  in  conjunction  with 
Morotsugu,  a  member  of  the  same  family,  for  an  endowment  to  the 
school,  in  the  period  Showa  (A.  D.  834-847).  Their  request  was 


So  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

granted,  and  the  school  was  restored  to  its  former  condition.  Subse- 
quently a  superintendent  and  a  chief  instructor  were  appointed  in  the 
institution,  and  a  ceremony  of  annually  presenting  its  graduates  to  the 
public  service  was  also  introduced. 

In  the  third  year  of  Kisho  (A.  D.  850)  a  school  was  founded  by  the  con- 
sort of  the  Emperor  Saga,  who  had  undertaken,  in  conjunction  with  her 
brother,  Ujigimi,  to  build  a  school  in  which  young  persons  of  her  family — 
namely,  that  of  Tachibana — might  be  educated  in  the  Chinese  classics 
and  histories.  Notwithstanding  the  death  of  her  brother,  she  executed 
her  design  in  establishing  the  school,  and  appropriated  some  land  for 
its  support.  In  the  first  year  of  Koko  this  institution  was  made  a  branch 
of  the  university  by  the  imperial  order. 

Junnain  was  formerly  a  pleasure-house  of  the  Emperor  Junna  (A.  D. 
824-833),  and  was  called  the  Western  Palace.  After  the  death  of  the 
emperor,  his  son,  the  Prince  Tsunesada,  having  asked  the  permission  of 
the  emperor  then  reigning,  converted  the  palace  into  a  school,  and  ap- 
pointed a  superintendent  for  the  education  of  all  young  persons  of  the 
O  family. 

A  school  was  founded  by  Ariwara  Yukihira,  the  son  of  the  Prince 
Awo,  and  the  grandson  of  the  Emperor  Nara,  in  the  fifth  year  of  Gen- 
kei  (A.  D.  831),  and  was  made  the  southern  hall  of  the  university,  it 
being  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  school  of  Fujiwara,  and 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  university  adjoining  it.  It  had  been  in- 
tended for  the  students  of  the  O  family  to  study  penmanship.  The 
term  O  was  adopted  as  a  family  name  by  all  those  who  descended  from 
the  royal  princes  in  three  or  four  generations,  and  still  had  no  particular 
family  name  given  them  by  the  emperor.  As  to  Yukihira,  he  had  this 
particular  family  name  given  him  by  the  emperor ;  therefore  it  seems 
that  he  established  this  school  for  the  children  of  his  relations.  In  the 
third  year  of  Oho  this  school  was  in  all  respects  assimilated  to  that  of 
Fujiwara.  Subsequently  it  was  transferred  to  the  superintendence  of 
the  Minamoto  family,  who,  being  also  the  descendants  of  the  Emperors 
Saga,  Murakami,  and  Seiwa,  were  entitled  to  superintend  the  school 
according  to  the  established  rule. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  81 

Though  the  above  four  schools  were  originally  founded  on  private 
account,  at  length  being  resorted  to  by  a  great  number  of  scholars  of  all 
families,  they  were  assimilated  to  the  public  institutions,  and  had  a 
larger  number  of  students  than  the  university. 

As  to  libraries,  there  is  no  mention  made  of  any  considerable 
one  being  established  in  all  these  ages.  During  the  period  Hoki 
(A.  D.  770-780)  a  person  named  Ishigami  lyetsugu  converted  his 
residence  into  a  temple,  and  within  the  grounds  of  the  temple  built 
a  house,  in  which  he  stored  books,  and  allowed  any  one  to  read 
the  books  at  pleasure.  This  is  the  first  instance  mentioned  of  col- 
lecting books  for  public  use.  In  the  early  part  of  the  period  of  Yen- 
riyaku  (A.  D.  782-806),  Wagekiyomaro,  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
undertook  to  provide  a  library  in  his  own  residence  for  the  use  of 
his  family,  but  did  not  attain  his  object.  Hiroyo,  his  son,  executed 
his  father's  intention  in  providing  a  building,  in  which  he  kept  sev- 
eral thousands  of  books,  and  appropriating  forty  cho's  of  land  to 
meet  expenses  for  keeping  up  the  establishment.  This  was  the  larg- 
est library  of  the  times.  At  a  later  period  the  Sugawara  family  had 
accumulated  and  possessed  books  from  generation  to  generation,  and 
when  the  famous  Michizane  succeeded  to  the  family  title  he  built  a 
study  in  his  new  residence  at  Gojo,  in  which  he  stored  the  books.  In 
the  centre  of  this  study  was  a  storehouse  for  the  reception  of  books,  which 
were  kept  in  small  cases,  and  arranged  upon  three  shelves  placed  one 
above  another,  on  four  sides  of  the  house.  It  is  mentioned  in  his  own 
memoir,  written  in  the  fifth  year  of  Kanpei  (A.  D.  893),  that  the  study- 
came  to  be  called  Rinmon  by  the  scholars  on  account  of  there  having 
been  nearly  one  hundred  students  educated  in  this  study  who  had  been 
taken  into  public  employment.  The  Oye  family  kept  up  its  hereditary 
profession  for  eight  generations,  and  consequently  accumulated  a  large 
number  of  books  during  three  hundred  years.  Oye  Masafusa  built  a 
library  at  Takahura  in  Nijo.  Some  one  remarked  to  him  that,  as  fires 
were  so  frequent  in  the  capital,  he  should  take  it  into  consideration  in 
regard  to  his  books.  To  this  he  replied  that  the  fate  of  his  hereditary 
profession  of  literature  depended  upon  that  of  the  Imperial  Government. 


g2  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

and,  as  long  as  the  Government  was  in  a  flourishing  state,  there  was 
nothing  to  be  feared  about  the  safety  of  the  books.  When  the  books 
were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  period  of  Ninpei  (A.  D.  1051-1053),  the 
Imperial  Government  was  also  in  a  declining  state,  and  it  was  said  by 
all  that  he  had  a  correct  foresight. 

At  a  later  period  a  library  was  built  by  Fujiwara  Yorimasa,  the 
Sadaijin,  who,  being  fond  of  literary  pursuits,  engaged  in  the  study  of 
the  Chinese  classics,  and  purchased  many  books.  The  interior  of  the 
library  was  furnished  with  shelves  on  the  eastern  and  western  sides, 
upon  which  books  were  placed,  being  divided  into  the  four  classes  of 
classics,  histories,  miscellaneous,  and  Japanese  books.  The  greater 
part  of  these  consisted  of  books  he  himself  had  copied.  A  merchant 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  So  dynasty,  hearing  of  the  library,  contributed 
to  it  "  The  History  of  the  To  Dynasty  "  and  the  history  of  the  five 
kingdoms  of  China. 

During  three  hundred  and  eighty  years  from  the  period  of  Hokio 
(A.  D.  770)  to  this  time  there  were  no  more  than  these  few  instances  to 
be  mentioned  of  libraries,  and,  after  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  had 
again  passed,  Kanazawa  Bunko,  or  the  library  of  Kanazawa,  was  built 
by  Kanazawa  Akitoki ;  and,  after  the  lapse  of  another  fifty  years,  books 
possessed  by  Uyesugi  Norezane  were  collected  and  stored  in  the  school 
of  the  Ashigaga  family.  It  is,  indeed,  by  these  two  families  last  men- 
tioned that  literary  learning  amid  wars  and  disturbances  narrowly  es- 
caped its  extinction,  and  was  transmitted  to  posterity. 

The  account  of  the  restoration  of  learning,  which  was  brought  to 
the  brink  of  extinction  during  the  periods  Keicho  and  Genna,  will  be 
given  in  the  next  chapter. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  83 


CHAPTER   III. 
EDUCATION  UNDER  THE  SHOGUNATE. 

BY  the  rigor  of  military  discipline  disorder  in  a  country  is  suppressed, 
but  peace  is  not  preserved  without  literary  knowledge.  This  truth  was 
not  unknown  to  our  former  emperors,  for  in  the  observance  of  it  they, 
in  ancient  times,  when  in  a  flourishing  condition,  directed  their  attention 
to  literature  as  well  as  military  affairs.  They  established  at  Kioto  and 
in  the  several  provinces  garrisons  for  the  preservation  of  order.  At  the 
same  time,  in  Kiushi,  a  local  government  was  established  at  Dazai  to 
keep  out  the  Western  barbarians  ;  and  in  Mutzu  a  military  government 
was  established  to  keep  the  Eastern  barbarians  in  subjection.  They 
founded  in  Kioto  an  Imperial  University ;  and  in  the  provinces  of  the 
empire  provincial  schools  were  opened.  They  also  made  many  laws 
and  regulations  under  which  learning  and  science  flourished. 

In  religion  the  majority  of  all  classes  professed  the  doctrines  of 
Buddhism,  so  that  even  the  emperors  were  satisfied  to  rank  themselves 
among  its  believers.  Still  Confucianism  was  by  no  means  neglected, 
but  was  studied  as  before.  The  educational  system  established  and 
supported  by  the  Government  exerted  a  good  influence  on  the  morals 
and  manners  of  the  people,  and  helped  to  train  up  virtuous  men 
and  women.  In  the  first  year  of  the  period  Tempei-hoji  (A.  D.  757), 
the  Empress  Koken  issued  an  edict  to  the  following  effect :  "  Filial 
piety  is  the  foundation  on  which  to  govern  the  state  and  to  pre- 
serve public  peace,  and,  as  there  is  nothing  more  important  than  this, 
every  house  should  preserve  a  copy  of  the  Chinese  book  on  '  Filial 
Piety,'  and  it  should  be  read  night  and  day."  This  plan  was  copied 
from  the  Chinese.  It  was  at  this  time  that  education  began  to  be 


84 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


diffused  by  the  Government  among  the  masses  of  the  people.  Fol- 
lowing this  was  a  period  when  the  imperial  power  was  usurped  by  the 
military  subjects,  for  several  hundred  years,  and  the  educational  system 
could  not  be  kept  in  so  flourishing  a  condition  as  in  former  times,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  time  when  Tokugawa  lyeyasu  rose  into  power  as  sho- 
gun,  or  military  chief  under  the  emperor,  that  scholars  were  esteemed, 
Confucianism  respected,  the  art  of  government  studied,  and  the  benefit 
of  education  began  to  spread  itself  once  more  over  the  empire. 

Literary  Institutions. — In  the  sixth  year  of  Keicho  (A.  D.  1601), 
lyeyasu  founded  for  the  first  time  a  school  at  Fushimi,  near  Kioto,  in 
Yamashiro,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  literature. 

After  he  had  gained  the  battle  of  Seki-ga-hara,  where  he  finally 
crushed  the  power  of  his  enemies,  he  became  the  actual,  though  not  the 
titular,  ruler  of  the  whole  empire  of  Japan.  He  encouraged  literature 
and  education.  In  the  nineteenth  year  of  Keicho  (A.  D.  1614),  at  the 
request  of  Doshun,  he  founded  another  school  at  Kioto,  and  chose 
Seikuwa  as  its  chief. 

Seikuwa  was  a  son  of  the  Councilor  Tamezumi,  and  had  joined  in 
his  youth  the  Buddhist  priesthood,  which,  however,  he  afterward  re- 
nounced, and  began  to  give  lectures  on  the  Chinese  classics  at  Kioto, 
upon  which  the  priests  of  Gozan  rose  in  opposition  to  him,  urging  that, 
in  accordance  with  the  custom  established  since  the  Ashikaga  dynasty, 
no  one  could  collect  students  and  deliver  lectures  to  them  except  their 
order  alone.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  incident  how  low  education  had 
fallen  at  this  time. 

Seikuwa,  far  from  being  discouraged  by  this  opposition,  undertook 
the  restoration  of  moral  education  to  its  former  state. 

His  disciples  gradually  increased,  and  his  fame  spread  abroad. 
Many  imperial  nobles  and  territorial  princes  became  his  followers,  and 
such  great  scholars  as  Hayashi  Doshun,  Matzunaga  Shosan,  Nawa 
Kuwasshio,  Kuwan  Gendo,  Ishikawa  Jozan,  Hori  Kio-an,  and  others, 
were  educated  under  him.  lyeyasu,  hearing  of  his  fame,  called  him,  in 
the  second  year  of  Bunroku  (A.  D.  1593),  to  Yedo,  and  ordered  him  to 
deliver  lectures  on  the  "  Book  of  Political  Science." 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  g- 

Aftervvard  he  begged  leave  to  retire,  and  returned  to  Kioto,  where 
he  was  made  the  head  of  a  school.  It  was  his  desire  to  build  halls  for 
the  use  of  students,  which  he  proposed  to  get  endowed  with  land,  and 
also  to  assemble  all  the  illustrious  and  wise  men  of  his  time,  so  that  he 
might  consult  them  on  matters  of  school  administration.  But  at  this 
time  the  battle  of  Osaka  was  fought,  and  soon  after  lyeyasu  died  ;  he 
was,  therefore,  unable  to  carry  out  his  project.  In  the  fifth  year  of 
Genna  (A.  D.  1619)  he  died,  in  the  fifty-ninth  year  of  his  age. 

To  him  we  are  indebted  for  the  revival  of  literature  and  the  restora- 
tion of  education.  The  former  system  of  education  had  been  pulled  to 
the  ground  during  the  perpetual  wars  which  raged  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  Ashikaga  Government,  and  he  devoted  himself  entirely  to  its  restora- 
tion. 

It  was  in  the  seventh  year  of  Kuwanye  (A.  D.  1630)  that  Tokugawa 
Hidetada  bestowed  on  Hayashi  Doshun  a  piece  of  land  at  Uyeno,  in 
Yedo,  for  his  residence,  and  here  Doshun  founded  a  private  school. 

On  part  of  this  ground  Yoshinobu,  Prince  of  Owari,  in  the  tenth 
year  of  Kuwanye  (A.  D.  1633),  caused  a  temple  to  be  erected  in  honor 
of  Confucius,  which  he  called  the  Sage's  Temple ;  here  ceremonies  were 
performed  in  honor  of  Confucius,  in  the  middle  months  of  spring  and 
autumn.  Upon  this,  for  the  first  time,  reverence  and  esteem  began  to 
be  entertained  by  all  classes  for  Confucian  learning. 

The  Hayashi  family,  from  the  time  of  Doshun,  continued  succes- 
sively to  superintend  school  affairs  under  the  Tokugawa  family.  Do- 
shun's  son  was  Jo,  and  his  grandson,  Ko  ;  they  both  added  to  the  fame 
of  the  family  name,  and  at  length  this  family  held  supreme  power  in  all 
literary  matters  of  the  empire. 

Hayashi  Doshun  was  born  at  Kioto.  While  yet  a  child  he  studied 
at  the  monastery  Kenninji  of  Higashiyama,  and  even  at  this  early  age 
his  literary  talents  were  so  great  that  the  priests  of  the  monastery  bore 
him  much  affection  ;  they  tried  to  prevail  upon  him  to  enter  upon  a  re- 
ligious life,  but  he  did  not  follow  their  advice.  Afterward  he  was  taught 
by  Fujiwara  Seikuwa,  and  he  became  a  believer  in  the  teachings  of 
Chinese  philosophy. 


86  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

In  his  twentieth  year  he  began  to  assemble  students,  and  commenced 
to  deliver  lectures  on  the  "  Confucian  Analects."  In  those  days,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  established  custom,  all  the  professors  of  the  classics  at 
the  imperial  court  made  use  of  the  old  commentaries  to  interpret  the 
Chinese  classics  ;  but  now  Doshun  alone  commenced  to  teach  the  new 
Chinese  philosophy.  Upon  this  Kiyowara  Hidekata,  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors, denounced  him,  and  petitioned  that  he  might  be  punished  ;  for, 
being  a  private  individual,  it  was  alleged  that  he  had,  without  being  in 
a  position  which  entitled  him  to  do  so,  delivered  lectures  on  the  Chinese 
classics,  and,  moreover,  he  had  done  so  without  adhering  to  the  old  com- 
mentaries, lyeyasu,  however,  rejecting  the  petition,  bestowed  his  favor 
on  Doshun,  and  made  him  his  adviser.  Later  on  Doshun  shaved  his 
head,  and  received  a  sacerdotal  title.  He  reestablished  the  ceremonies 
of  the  imperial  court  upon  their  ancient  footing,  and  revised  the  laws 
and  edicts.  Indeed,  at  this  time  there  was  no  proclamation  or  govern- 
ment document  issued  which  did  not  pass  through  his  hands.  He 
served  in  succession  four  shoguns,  and  thus,  becoming  well  versed  in. 
the  old  precedents  of  the  court,  always  took  part  in  the  discussions 
held  on  the  forms  and  ceremonies  to  be  observed  on  all  such  pub- 
lic occasions  as  the  coronation,  the  change  in  the  name  of  the  year,  the 
processions  of  the  emperor,  or  the  ceremonies  to  be  observed  upon 
admission  to  the  imperial  presence,  and  upon  offering  sacrifices  at  the 
ancestral  temple,  and  on  those  to  be  observed  in  foreign  intercourse. 
He  died  in  the  third  year  of  Meireki  (A.  D.  1657),  in  the  seventy-fifth 
year  of  his  age,  leaving  behind  him  works  on  one  hundred  and  thirty 
different  subjects,  and  essays  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
volumes.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jo. 

Hayashi  Jo,  or  Shunsai,  as  he  was  more  commonly  called,  was  the 
third  son  of  Doshun.  In  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  age  he  accom- 
panied his  father  to  Yedo,  and  there  assisted  him  in  the  compilation  of 
his  works.  He  principally  devoted  himself  to  the  compilation  of  a 
genealogical  record  of  noted  Japanese  families,  consisting  of  more  than 
three  hundred  volumes,  commenced  by  his  father  under  government 
orders  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  Kuwanye  (A.  D.  1640),  and  completed 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  87 

after  twenty  years  of  labor.  To  Shunsai  is  mainly  due  the  merit  of  its 
composition.  In  the  third  year  of  Manji  (A.  D.  1660)  he  repaired,  at 
the  expense  of  the  shogun's  government,  the  Confucian  temple.  In  the 
first  year  of  Kuwanbun  (A.  D.  1661)  he  received  a  promotion  to  a  high 
priestly  rank,  and  in  the  third  year  (A.  D.  1663),  in  honor  of  his  scho- 
lastic attainments,  he  was  created  a  doctor. 

About  this  time,  having  obtained  the  government  permission,  he 
undertook  the  completion  of  a  history  of  Japan,  commencing  with  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Jimmu,  and  carried  up  to  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Uda.  This  work  had  been  left  unfinished  by  his  father. 
For  this  purpose  he  established,  at  the  side  of  the  Confucian  temple,  an 
historiographer's  office,  and  here  he  worked  at  the  completion  of  the 
above-mentioned  history.  This  work  was  completed  after  seven  years  of 
labor,  during  which  time  he  was  assisted  by  his  two  sons,  and  by  more 
than  thirty  assistants  of  his  own  training  ;  upon  these  daily  wages  and 
monthly  allowances  were  bestowed  by  the  Government.  When  this 
history  was  about  to  be  published,  it  was  subjected  to  the  revision  of 
the  Princes  of  Owari,  Kii,  and  Mito  ;  and  the  last  of  these,  Mitsukuni, 
Prince  of  Mito,  attacked  it,  and  was  strongly  opposed  to  its  being  pub- 
lished, because,  he  said,  it  contained  singular  opinions  concerning  the 
Emperor  Jimmu.  Its  publication  was  on  this  account  stopped.  Upon 
this  the  historiographer's  office  was  converted  into  a  hall  for  students, 
and  the  fund  granted  for  the  compilation  of  historical  works  was  used 
for  their  support. 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  Kuwanbun  (A.  D.  1672)  another  hall,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  old  one,  was  erected,  with  materials  supplied  by  the 
Government.  This  was  named  the  Eastern  Hall,  while  the  other 
was  called  the  Western.  In  the  eighth  year  of  Yempo  (A.  D.  1680), 
Shunsai  died,  in  the  sixty-third  year  of  his  age.  His  son  Ko  succeeded 
him. 

Hayashi  Ko  was  the  second  son  of  Shunsai.  He  first  took  as  his 
common  name  Shun-jo,  which  he  afterward  changed  for  that  of  Toku- 
shin.  At  this  time  Tsunayoshi  was  shogun  ;  he  was  very  fond  of  study, 
and  patronized  Tokushin,  whose  house  being  at  a  great  distance  from 


88  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

the  castle,  the  shogun  gave  him  a  new  residence  within  the  castle-ram- 
parts 

In  the  fourth  year  of  Teikio  (A.  D.  1687)  he  received  a  sacerdotal 
title,  and  also  succeeded  to  his  father's  title  of  doctor.  In  the  third 
year  of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1690)  he  was  ordered  to  remove  the  Sage's 
Temple  in  his  grounds  to  Ushima,  where  it  was  rebuilt  with  great  mag- 
nificence, and  called  Tai-sei-den.  In  the  following  year  the  Shogun 
Tsunayoshi  personally  visited  this  temple,  and  performed  the  ceremony 
in  honor  of  the  sage  ;  on  this  occasion  he  made  this  temple  a  land-en- 
dowment, in  order  to  meet  the  expenditure  consequent  upon  the  annual 
festival  held  in  the  sage's  honor ;  besides  which,  he  also  endowed  it  with 
a  permanent  fund  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  a  large  number  of  stu- 
dents. Such  was  the  source  from  which  the  college  of  Sho-hei  origi- 
nated ;  and,  in  fact,  at  no  time  since  the  period  of  Keicho  (A.  D.  1 596- 
1614)  had  learning  been  so  prosperous  ;  for  now  everybody,  from  the 
nobility  down  to  the  masses  of  the  people,  began  to  esteem  and  appre- 
ciate literary  studies. 

Rise  of  the  Literary  Profession. — Since  the  time  of  the  Ashikaga 
shogunate,  wars  had  raged  year  after  year,  and  the  "  samurai,"  or 
military  class  of  the  people,  had  devoted  themselves  entirely  to  military 
arts,  while  the  cultivation  of  literature  had  long  been  left  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Buddhist  priests ;  consequently,  great  scholars  such  as 
Seikuwa  and  Doshun,  although  as  Confucianists  they  had  raised  them- 
selves to  high  positions,  still  had  been  obliged  to  take  the  priests  for 
their  teachers,  to  shave  their  heads,  and  to  assume  the  appearance  of 
being  the  followers  of  Buddhism,  receiving  sacerdotal  titles ;  this  made 
them  a  body  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  samurai  and  nobility. 

Tokushin  now  complained  of  the  injustice  he  suffered  from  this  cus- 
tom, urging  that,  as  Confucianism  was  the  code  of  principles  to  be  ob- 
served by  all  men,  it  was  unreasonable  that  he,  whose  profession  it  was 
to  teach  and  inculcate  these  principles,  should  not  be  equal  to  those 
who  are  taught !  The  Shogun  Tsunayoshi  acknowledged  the  justness 
of  this  argument,  and  accordingly  ordered  that  he  should  no  longer  be 
obliged  to  shave  his  head,  conferred  on  him  the  secular  title  of  the  fifth 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  89 

rank,  and  made  him  president  of  the  college.  Upon  this,  his  disciples, 
who  had  also  shaved  their  heads,  now,  following  in  their  master's  foot- 
steps, allowed  their  hair  to  grow.  And  all  the  scholars  throughout  the 
empire  copied  this  change  of  custom.  The  professors  of  Confucianism 
who  served  the  shogun's  government  at  this  time  had  all  received  their 
education  from  Tokushin.  The  Shogun  Tsunayoshi,  thus  showing  his 
liking  for  men  of  letters,  incited  all  the  daimios  to  vie  with  each  other  in 
inviting  Confucian  scholars  to  their  dominions.  Literature  had  never 
since  ancient  times  been  in  so  flourishing  a  condition.  In  this  state  of 
affairs  the  Shogun  Tsunayoshi  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  lyenobu. 
lyenobu  took  into  his  favor  Arai  Kimiyoshi,  and  consulted  him  upon  the 
important  affairs  of  the  state  ;  but  the  opinions  of  Tokushin  were  differ- 
ent from  those  of  Kimiyoshi ;  the  latter,  therefore,  repeatedly  sought 
permission  to  retire  from  office.  On  this  account  he  received  orders  to 
compose  works  on  the  organization  of  offices  and  ranks,  on  the  par- 
ticular forms  to  be  observed  on  occasions  of  mourning,  and  works  on 
genealogy.  After  the  death  of  the  Shogun  lyenobu,  Kimiyoshi  with- 
drew from  office,  and  Tokushin  again  occupied  himself  with  the  more 
important  business  of  the  state. 

He  served  five  shoguns  in  succession  ;  in  the  eighth  year  of  Kioho 
(A.  D.  1723)  he  resigned  the  office  of  president  of  the  college  in  favor 
of  his  son,  and  was  made  honorary  secretary.  He  died  in  the  eighty- 
eighth  year  of  his  age.  His  posterity  were  successively  appointed  to  the 
office  of  president  of  the  college,  and  they  held  supreme  sway  in  the 
literary  world.  During  the  shogunate  of  lyenari,  Matsudaira  Norihita 
was  adopted  into  the  Hayashi  family,  and  succeeded  to  the  hereditary 
office.  He  aided  the  shogun's  prime-minister,  Matsudaira  Sadanobu,  in 
the  most  important  affairs  of  state,  and  corrected  many  abuses  of  the 
time.  Up  to  his  time  Hayashi's  school  had  remained  a  private  institu- 
tion in  the  possession  of  the  Hayashi  famUy,  although  its  expenses  were 
defrayed  by  the  Government ;  but  now  a  national  school  was  established 
by  the  Government,  and  held  as  government  property.  To  this  school 
Norihira  presented  his  books,  and  annexed  the  halls  of  his  old  school. 
At  length  the  Taiseiden,  with  the  school-rooms  and  halls,  was  rebuilt. 


9o 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


and  new  school  regulations,  modes  of  examination,  and  systems  of 
gradation,  were  adopted.  According  to  the  old  regulations,  no  one  but 
the  retainers  of  the  shogun  had  been  allowed  to  enter  the  school ;  but 
now  another  hall  was  erected,  to  which  the  people  at  large  were  ad- 
mitted for  study.  Moreover,  the  learned  Shibano  Hikosuke,  Bito  Riyo- 
suke,  and  Koga  Yasute,  were  engaged  and  made  professors.  Ever 
since  the  time  of  the  Shogun  lyenobu,  learning  had  been  encouraged 
and  cared  for,  so  that  now  it  was  in  a  more  flourishing  condition  than 
ever.  Since  the  time  when  the  Tokugawa  family  had  founded  their 
government  in  Yedo,  no  shoguns  had  paid  so  much  attention  to  the 
cultivation  of  Chinese  philosophy  and  literature  as  Tsunayoshi  and 
lyenobu.  The  latter,  more  especially,  took  pains  to  root  out  the  war- 
like spirit  which  the  people  had  inherited  from  early  times  ;  and  with 
this  end  in  view  he  established  rules  of  etiquette  and  dress.  The  man- 
agement of  these  matters  he  confided  to  the  care  of  Arai  Kimiyoshi, 
who,  comparing  ancient  precedents  with  the  practice  of  modern  times, 
drew  up  regulations  on  these  subjects. 

Kimiyoshi,  or  Hakuseki,  by  which  name  he  is  more  generally 
known,  received  his  education  from  Kinoshita  Junnan. 

Junnan  was  a  native  of  Kioto,  and  was  distinguished  for  his  great 
learning.  He  first  served  the  Prince  of  Kaga,  and  then  the  shogun's 
government,  by  whom  he  was  employed  as  a  professor.  Junnan  had 
many  noted  disciples  ;  they,  together  with  the  Hayashi  family,  wielded 
supreme  power  in  the  literary  world.  Among  these  Kimiyoshi  was 
especially  favored  by  the  Shogun  lyenobu,  receiving  daily  additional 
marks  of  his  esteem  and  favor. 

Kimiyoshi  wrote  the  genealogical  records  of  three  hundred  and 
eighty-seven  daimios,  commencing  from  the  beginning  of  the  period 
Keicho  (A.  D.  1596-1614),  and  ending  in  that  of  Yempo  (A.  D.  1673- 
1680),  during  which  eighty  years  all  the  events  which  occurred  to  these 
daimios  are  minutely  chronicled.  He  eventually  was  made  governor  of 
the  province  Chikugo,  with  the  fifth  rank.  He  died  in  the  tenth  year  of 
Kioho  (A.  D.  1723),  in  the  sixty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  having  during 
his  life  written  on  more  than  three  hundred  different  subjects. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  9! 

Muro  Naokiyo,  othenvise  known  as  Kinso,  also,  like  his  teacher 
junnan,  served  the  Prince  of  Kaga,  but,  being  recommended  to  the 
shogun's  government  by  Kimiyoshi,  was  employed  by  it  as  a  professor. 

When  Yoshimune,  Prince  of  Kii,  was  chosen  successor  of  lye- 
nobu,  his  first  act  was  the  encouragement  of  literature.  A  lecture-hall 
was  constructed  at  the  Takakura  Mansion,  and  Naokiyo  was  selected 
as  the  first  court-lecturer.  The  duties  of  the  holder  of  this  title  were, 
to  deliver  lectures  to  the  shogun  in  his  court.  Yoshimune  directed 
Naokiyo  to  translate  from  Chinese  into  Japanese  the  work  of  Chinese 
moral  philosophy,  which  he  caused  to  be  published  and  distributed 
to  the  writing-masters  in  the  city,  to  be  used  as  copies  for  their  young 
pupils.  Naokiyo  also  translated  the  Chinese  ethics,  viz.,  the  five  human 
relations  of  father  and  son,  master  and  servant,  husband  and  wife, 
of  friends,  and  of  brothers  ;  and  the  five  cardinal  virtues,  humanity, 
uprightness,  propriety,  wisdom,  and  sincerity.  He  died  in  the  nine- 
teenth year  of  Kioho  (A.  D.  1734),  aged  seventy-seven  years.  Among 
the  works  which  survived  him  are  forty-three  volumes  of  his  essays. 

It  will  be  seen  that,  during  the  period  of  Kioho  (A.  D.  1716-1735). 
the  two  families  of  Hayashi  and  Kinoshita  educated  more  learned  schol- 
ars than  all  the  other  teachers.  And,  as  in  accordance  with  the  maxim 
"  What  the  superior  loves  the  inferior  will  be  found  to  love  more,'' 
there  was  not  a  province  in  which  learning  was  not  cultivated,  nor  a 
family  in  which  books  were  not  read.  At  Kioto  there  were  Ito  Jinsai 
and  his  sons,  and  at  Yedo  Butsu  Sorai,  who  were  all  considered  orna- 
ments of  the  period. 

Sorai,  commonly  called  Ogin  Soyemon,  was  born  in  Yedo.  He  was 
a  retainer  of  Yanagisawa  Yoshiyasu,  who  was  a  favorite  of  the  Shogun 
Tsunayoshi.  On  every  occasion  that  the  shogun  visited  Yoshiyasu, 
Soyemon  had  the  honor  of  delivering  in  his  presence  lectures  on  the 
Chinese  classics.  Among  Sorai's  disciples  were  many  men  of  excel- 
lence. They  all  upheld  the  old  doctrines  of  the  Chinese  classics,  and 
spread  their  fame  abroad. 

Jinsai,  whose  every-day  name  was  Ito,  established  at  Horikawa,  in 
Kioto,  a  private  boarding-school,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  education 


92  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

of  students  for  upward  of  forty  years ;  every  province  of  the  empire, 
except  the  three  of  Hida,  Sado,  and  Iki,  contributed  pupils  to  his 
school,  and  their  total  summed  up  to  more  than  three  thousand.  The 
Prince  of  Higo,  hearing  of  his  fame,  offered  him,  on  the  condition  of  his 
entering  his  service,  a  yearly  income  of  one  thousand  kokus  of  rice  ;  but 
Ito  declined  the  prince's  proposal.  In  the  second  year  of  Ho-ei  (A.  D. 
1705)  Ito  died,  aged  seventy-nine.  Among  his  works  are  to  be  found 
the  comments  on  the  "  Confucian  Analects  "  and  "  Mencius,"  the  books 
of  "Divination,"  and  several  others.  He  had  five  sons,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  eldest,  Genzo.  The  second  was  Juzo,  who  served  the 
Prince  of  Fukuyama.  Shozo  was  the  third  ;  he  served  the  Prince  of 
Takatsuki.  The  fourth  was  Heizo ;  he  served  the  Prince  of  Kurume. 
The  youngest  was  Saizo ;  he  served  the  Prince  of  Kii.  They  were 
thus  employed  by  the  princes  on  account  of  the  literary  knowledge 
which  they  had  acquired  from  their  father.  They  were  called  the 
five  Zos  of  Ito,  from  the  final  syllable  of  their  common  names. 

Genzo's  works  were  very  considerable,  the  following  being  among 
the  number,  "Teaching  of  Old  Learning,"  the  "Changes  in  Old 
Learning,"  and  more  than  fifty  others,  which  are  considered  of  great 
utility.  There  is  also  besides  these  a  collection  of  his  essays.  He 
died  in  the  first  year  of  Genbun  (A.  D.  1736),  in  the  sixty-seventh  year 
of  his  age. 

From  the  above-mentioned  facts  it  will  be  seen  that  literature  was 
in  a  very  prosperous  condition.  On  this  account  school  rules  and  regu- 
lations, together  with  methodical  courses  of  lectures,  were  regularly  es- 
tablished, and  these  became  the  foundation  of  the  future  educational 
system. 

Soon  after  many  useful  institutions,  such  as  the  Observatory,  the 
Medical  School,  and  the  School  for  Western  Medicine,  were  gradually 
established.  This  state  of  things  naturally  arose  from  the  increased 
civilization  of  the  times,  as  well  as  from  the  attention  which  the  Toku- 
gawa  family  devoted  to  the  promotion  of  literature. 

We  will  now  enter  upon  the  historical  records  of  the  institutions 
connected  with  astronomy,  medicine,  etc.,  and,  in  order  more  completely 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  93 

to  show  their  origin,  short  biographies  of  those  who  were  more  par- 
ticularly concerned  with  them  will  be  added  to  the  description  of  each 
institution. 

Astronomical  Institutions. — The  first  observatory  was  that  of 
Kanda,  which  was  erected  in  the  first  year  of  Yenkio  (A.  D.  1744). 

The  Shogun  Yoshimune  had  already,  while  still  leading  a  private 
life  in  the  residence  of  the  Prince  of  Kii,  shown  an  inclination  for  the 
study  of  astronomy  and  calendrical  science,  and  after  he  had  succeeded 
to  the  shogunate  he  sent  for  Tatebe  Hikojiro,  in  order  that  he  might 
personally  obtain  from  him  information  upon  such  subjects.  He  also 
caused  a  large  celestial  globe  to  be  made  under  the  direction  of  Kato, 
who  was  a  skillful  artificer,  and  was  for  this  purpose  called  from  the 
province  of  Kii.  In  the  third  year  of  Kioho  (A.  D.  1718)  Yoshimune 
himself  made  an  apparatus  for  determining  the  sun's  meridian  altitude, 
and  he  placed  it  in  his  garden  of  Fukiage.  He  also,  hearing  of  Nishi- 
gawa  Joken,  who  was  well  versed  both  in  astronomy  and  calendrical 
science,  called  him  from  Nagasaki,  and  requested  him  to  present  his 
works.  In  the  same  year,  the  first  year  of  Yenkio  (A.  D.  1744),  a  new 
observatory  was  built,  in  which  the  celestial  globe,  which  had  been 
constructed,  was  placed. 

In  the  third  year  of  Yenkio  (A.  D.  1746)  Nishigawa  Chiujiro,  the 
son  of  Joken,  having  been  ordered  to  correct  the  Teikio  almanac,  which 
Yasui  Santetsu  had  composed  from  his  own  calculations,  and  which  had 
been  found  to  be  incorrect,  published  an  amended  almanac.  Santetsu 
was  originally  a  skillful  player  at  "  go  "  (an  intricate  game  of  checkers, 
introduced  from  China)  ;  but,  possessing  natural  talents  for  mathe- 
matics, had  discovered,  upon  comparison,  that  the  sun's  actual  position 
and  motions  did  not  always  correspond  with  the  place  and  motions  in- 
dicated in  the  almanac  which  had  been  in  use  since  the  fourth  year  of 
Jokuwan  (A.  D.  862),  during  a  period  of  eight  hundred  and  twenty-odd 
years.  He,  therefore,  had  compiled  a  new  and  corrected  one,  which 
had  been  distributed  throughout  the  empire  under  the  name  of  Teikio 
almanac.  On  this  account  he  was  in  that  year  made  astronomer  to  the 
Government. 


94 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


In  the  second  year  of  Kuwanyen,  four  years  after  the  retirement 
from  office  of  the  Shogun  Yoshinobu,  the  almanac  (calculated,  as  above 
mentioned,  by  Nishigawa  Chiujiro)  was  completed.  In  this  country, 
however,  all  matters  of  a  calendrical  nature  had,  in  accordance  with 
law,  been  managed,  from  age  to  age,  by  the  Tsuchimikado  family. 
Hence  this  new  and  corrected  almanac  was  subjected  to  the  examina- 
tion of  Abe  Yasukuni,  and  his  approval  of  the  corrections  was  re- 
quested, upon  which  Yasukuni  went  through  the  ceremony  of  an  as- 
tronomical calculation  on  the  winter  solstice  of  the  third  year  of  Horeki 
(A.  D.  1753),  to  participate  in  which  the  author  came  from  Yedo. 

In  the  following  year  this  almanac  was  published  and  distributed 
among  the  people.  Soon  afterward  the  astronomical  office  was  abol- 
ished, although  the  three  families  of  Shibukawa,  Nishigawa,  and  Yoshi- 
da,  still  continued  to  direct  astronomical  subjects.  In  the  second  year 
of  Meiwa  (A.  D.  1765),  Yoshida  Shiro  founded  at  Ushigome  an  office 
for  compiling  new  almanacs.  Eighteen  years  later,  or  in  the  second 
year  of  Temmei  (A.  D.  1782),  this  office  was  removed  to  Asakusa, 
where  a  new  observatory  was  built.  The  revised  almanac,  distributed 
in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Tempo  (A.  D.  1843),  was  calculated  at  this  ob- 
servatory. 

Medical  Schools. — A  medical  school  was  first  founded  on  the  Chi- 
nese system  in  the  second  year  of  Meiwa  (A.  D.  1765),  by  Taki  Genko, 
a  physician  of  the  shogun's  government. 

Genko  was  a  descendant  of  the  family  of  Yamba ;  his  forefathers 
were  physicians  in  the  service  of  the  imperial  court ;  one  of  them,  how- 
ever, was  a  physician  of  the  shogun.  Genko  distinguished  himself 
greatly  in  his  profession,  and  in  the  above-mentioned  year  he  at  length 
asked  for  and  obtained  from  the  Government  a  piece  of  ground  at  Soto 
Kanda,  in  Yedo,  where  he  founded  a  private  school,  where  the  younger 
members  of  the  families  of  government  physicians  and  the  physicians  of 
the  several  provinces  and  towns  were  able  to  study  medical  science. 
In  the  following  year  Genko  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Gento- 
ku,  who  superintended  the  medical  school.  In  the  first  year  of  Anyei 
(A.  D.  1772),  this  school  was  burnt  down,  and  Gentoku,  at  his  own 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  95 

expense,  rebuilt  it.  In  the  second  year  of  Anyei  (A.  D.  1773),  all  the 
physicians  in  the  service  of  the  shogun  were  ordered  to  subscribe  a 
certain  amount  of  money  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of  this  school. 
In  the  sixth  year  of  Temmei  (A.  D.  1786)  the  school  was  again  rebuilt, 
and  new  regulations  were  made,  by  which  the  children  of  government 
physicians  and  other  students  were  allowed  to  live  within  the  school, 
and  carry  on  their  studies  during  the  term  of  one  hundred  days  in  the 
two  seasons  of  spring  and  summer  of  every  year.  In  the  third  year  of 
Kuwansei  (1791)  a  new  system  was  established,  and  the  school  received 
some  land-endowments  and  became  a  government  medical  institution. 

The  new  system  was  formed  under  the  direction  of  Anchio,  the  son 
of  Gentoku.  He  abolished  the  practice  of  admitting  the  physicians  of 
the  provinces  and  towns,  and  only  admitted  members  of  the  families  of 
the  government  physicians,  limiting  the  age  of  those  admitted  to  forty 
years  and  under.  Besides  which  he  fixed  days  on  which  all  the  physi- 
cians of  the  shogun  should  meet  and  discuss  matters  referring  to  their 
profession.  The  office  of  school-director,  however,  was  still  held  by 
Gentoku  himself.  On  this  occasion  also  all  the  officers  of  the  school, 
such  as  supervisors,  lecturers,  compounders  of  medicines,  etc.,  were 
appointed.  When  any  patients  sought  advice,  they  were  examined  by 
all  the  physicians  of  the  institution,  and  were  supplied  with  medicines  at 
the  expense  of  the  Government. 

Gentoku  and  Anchio,  as  a  reward  for  having  devoted  themselves  to 
this  profession,  and  for  having  founded,  rebuilt,  and  kept  open  this 
school  at  their  own  expense,  received  from  the  Government  a  certain 
sum  of  money.  Since  this  the  posterity  of  the  Taki  family  have  con- 
tinued to  be  made  directors  of  this  school. 

In  the  third  year  of  Bunkuwa  (A.  D.  1806)  this  school  was  again 
unfortunately  burnt  down,  when  it  was  removed  to  another  site  in  Yedo. 

A  School  of  Japanese  Language  and  Literature. — A  school  of 

Japanese  literature  was  founded  first  in  the  fifth  year  of  Kuwansei  (A.  D. 

1793),  by  Hanawa  Homino-ichi.   He  was  born  in  the  county  of  Kotama, 

in  the  province  of  Musashi,  and  lost  his  eyesight  while  yet  a  child  ; 

_  afterward  he  came  to  Yedo  and  was  educated  under  Imajo.     He  was 


96 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


very  fond  of  the  old  books  of  this  country,  and  during  several  decades 
searched  for  those  which  in  the  course  of  time  had  become  scattered 
and  lost.  In  the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age,  he  received  from  the  Govern- 
ment a  piece  of  ground  at  Banchio,  in  Yedo,  where  he  founded  a  school 
of  Japanese  literature,  near  which  he  built  a  library  to  keep  his  books. 
In  the  seventh  year  of  Kuwansei  (A.  D.  1795)  his  school  was  endowed 
with  some  land,  and  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Shohei  Col- 
lege. 

Homino-ichi  classified  and  arranged  1,273  subjects,  about  which  the 
old  books  treated,  into  one  work  of  530  volumes,  which  he  published. 
Afterward  he  published  a  continuation  of  the  same,  a  work  of  1,185 
volumes,  treating  upon  2,103  subjects.  On  this  account,  in  the  tenth 
year  of  Kuwansei  (A.  D.  1798),  he  asked  for  and  obtained  a  piece  of  land 
at  South  Shinagawa,  where  he  built  a  warehouse  in  which  the  wooden 
blocks  of  his  publications  were  kept.  In  the  second  year  of  Bunkuwa 
(A.  D.  1805)  it  was  found  that  the  ground  on  which  his  school  was  built 
was  too  small ;  therefore,  the  Government  granted  him  the  unoccupied 
piece  of  ground  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  his  school.  Here  he 
erected  larger  school-buildings.  In  the  fourth  year  of  Bunsei  (A.  D. 
1821)  Homino-ichi,  on  account  of  his  advanced  age,  retired  from  office, 
and  his  son  Tadatomi  was  made  school-director  in  his  place.  In  the 
following  year  Homino-ichi  died  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

This  school  which  he  founded  existed  till  late  years,  being  in  the 
possession  of  the  Hanawa  family. 

In  ancient  times  in  Japan  native  learning  was  not  cultivated.  It 
was  only  after  the  foreign  learning  had  spread  in  this  country  that 
Japanese  learning  began  to  improve. 

After  letters  were  introduced,  composition  came  into  use,  and  by 
means  of  these  letters  the  various  meanings  of  words  were  explained  ; 
but  in  these  writings  the  foreign  style  of  composition  had  to  be  adhered 
to.  When  Chinese  learning  had  made  much  progress  in  Japan  the 
native  literature  was  made  to  imitate  it,  and  even  government  enact- 
ments were  in  accordance  with  the  Chinese  style.  .  Nevertheless,  the 
colloquial  language  could  not  be  changed,  so  that,  although  the  Chinese  . 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  gj 

style  was  used  for  the  written  language,  the  spoken  language  remained 
as  it  always  had  been.  Even  at  the  present  day  the  written  and  spoken 
languages  are  different  from  each  other.  Before  the  Japanese  middle 
ages  the  orthoepic  differences  between  direct  and  indirect  sounds,  or  pure 
and  impure,  were  distinctly  observed.  On  this  account,  that  which  was 
written  coincided  exactly  with  that  which  was  spoken.  As  Chinese 
learning  was  more  universally  followed,  this  ancient  precision  was 
gradually  lost.  Still,  during  the  periods  Kanpei  (A.  D.  889-897)  and 
Yencho  (A.  D.  923-930)  the  priest  Shoju  and  Minamoto  each  pub- 
lished a  dictionary,  in  both  of  which  the  definition  of  the  words  was 
very  clear,  and  the  spelling  in  the  Japanese  alphabet-sounds  was  par- 
ticularly good,  so  that  up  to  this  time  the  deterioration  had  not  been 
very  considerable.  After  this  there  were  few  who  studied  the  correct 
accents,  and  none  who  corrected  the  faulty  pronunciations.  Fujiwara 
Teika,  following  the  profession  of  poet,  established  a  system  of  his  own 
for  the  employment  of  the  Japanese  alphabet-sounds,  which  not  only 
differed  from  that  in  ancient  use,  but  also  impugned  the  correctness  of 
ancient  books  on  this  subject.  This  false  system,  called  the  "  Gosho- 
kana,"  was  used  for  four  hundred  and  fifty  years  without  its  errors 
being  discovered  by  any  one.  During  the  period  of  Yempo  (A.  D. 
1673-1680),  the  Buddhist  priest  Keichiu,  of  Naniwa,  fond  of  Japan- 
ese learning,  and  well  acquainted  with  the  old  Japanese  works,  com- 
piled for  Prince  Mitsukuni,  of  Mito,  the  book  of  twenty-two  volumes 
of  comments  on  ancient  poetry.  Keichiu's  leading  argument  was : 
"  In  the  language  of  my  country,  the  correct  or  classical  and  the  vulgar, 
and  again  the  ancient  and  the  modern,  are  to  be  distinguished  ;  if  these 
distinctions  are  not  clearly  borne  in  mind,  a  correct  etymology  of  the 
Japanese  language  will  be  impossible.  The  most  ancient  memorial  of 
the  language  is  the  '  Collection  of  Ancient  Poetry ; '  if,  therefore,  one 
does  not  depend  upon  this  work,  it  will  be  impossible  to  explain  the 
source  of  the  language."  With  this  in  view  he  composed  the  work  to 
correct  the  errors  then  current,  and  he  revived  the  ancient  system  of 
orthography  with  the  Japanese  alphabet.  At  this  time  a  Shinto  priest 
of  Kioto,  Kada  Adzuma-maro,  also  a  votary  to  Japanese  learning,  la- 
5 


9g  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

mented  that  since  the  middle  ages  the  pronunciation  had  become  incor- 
rect. He  composed  a  work  in  eighty  volumes,  for  the  purpose  of  cor- 
recting this  evil.  Kamomabuchi,  of  Totomi,  being  for  his  pleasure  in 
Kioto,  became  a  pupil  of  Adzuma-maro,  and  acquired  a  knowledge  of 
Japanese  learning.  In  the  second  year  of  Kuwanyen  (A.  D.  1749)  Ma- 
buchi came  to  Yedo,  and  entered  the  service  of  Councilor  Tayasu  Mu- 
netake.  Here  he  greatly  fostered  and  extended  Japanese  learning. 
What  he  continually  impressed  upon  his  students  was  :  "  Let  us  com- 
pare the  present  condition  of  Japanese  learning  to  agriculture.  We  find 
that  Keichiu  commences  and  prepares  the  ground  for  seed,  but  does 
not  complete  the  sowing  of  the  seed  ;  my  teacher  nearly  completes 
this,  but  suddenly  dies,  so  that  it  remains  for  us  to  be  responsible  for 
the  work  of  harvest ;  therefore,  you  must  diligently  exert  yourselves  to 
finish  this  work."  At  length  Mabuchi,  to  disseminate  his  views,  put 
forth  several  works  on  Japanese  poetry.  Afterward  he  retired  from 
office,  and  lived  at  Hamacho.  He  died  in  the  sixth  year  of,Meiwa 
(A.  D.  1769),  at  the  age  of  seventy-three. 

Moto-ori  Nobunaga  was  a  pupil  of  Mabuchi,  and  was  more  espe- 
cially skilled  in  Japanese  learning.  He  composed  a  "  History  of  Old 
Times  "  in  forty-eight  volumes.  In  this  work  the  Japanese  language  is 
about  at  its  best.  Moto-ori  Nobunaga  was  from  the  province  Ise.  When 
he  read  one  of  the  works  of  Mabuchi  he  made  a  written  application  to 
him  to  become  one  of  his  pupils  ;  Mabuchi,  admiring  his  earnest  de- 
sire, encouraged  him,  and  was  the  cause  of  his  writing  his  work  on 
history.  Besides  this  he  was  the  author  of  the  work  on  "  words,"  and 
many  others.  He  died  in  the  first  year  of  Kiowa  (A.  D.  1801),  at  the 
age  of  seventy-two,  and  left  two  sons,  Shiuntei  and  Taihei,  who  both 
followed  their  father's  profession.  Shiuntei  was  the  author  of  works  on 
grammar.  About  this  time,  besides  Nobunaga,  Fuyetani  Nari-akira 
taught  this  subject  at  Kioto.  Afterward  Hirata  Atsutane,  Ban  Nobu- 
tomo,  and  Tachibana  Moribe,  successively  appeared  ;  but  these,  desiring 
to  improve  what  was  already  correct,  produced  a  contrary  effect ;  nev- 
ertheless they  were  sufficiently  correct  to  be  called  masters. 

School  of  Foreign  Languages. — In  the  second  year  of  Ansei  (A.  D. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  gg 

1855),  at  the  base  of  the  ascent  of  Kudan,  in  Yedo,  a  school  was  built 
where  the  Dutch  language  was  to  be  taught,  Koga  Zo  being  appointed 
director  of  this  school.  In  the  third  year  of  Ansei  (A.  D.  1856),  Sugita 
Seikei,  a  subject  of  the  Prince  of  Obama,  and  Mitsukuri  Gempo, 
were  appointed  teachers  in  this  school.  In  the  following  year  the 
school  was  opened  and  teaching  commenced ;  at  first,  however,  sub- 
jects of  the  shogun  only  were  admitted  as  students ;  it  was  not 
until  some  time  after  that  the  retainers  of  the  several  daimios  were 
admitted.  In  the  first  year  of  Manyen  (A.  D.  1860)  the  school  was 
removed  to  Ogawa-machi,  on  which  occasion  English  and  French,  to- 
gether with  the  German  and  Russian  languages,  were  added  to  the 
regular  course,  and  a  class  in  chemistry  was  commenced.  Thus  the 
course  of  instruction  in  Western  learning  was  gradually  made  more 
complete.  In  the  second  year  of  Bunkiu  (A.  D.  1862)  new  and  larger 
buildings  for  the  school  were  erected  near  Shitotsubashi  Gate.  Seikei 
having  died  in  the  mean  time,  Mitsukuri  Gempo  and  Kawamoto  Komin, 
the  latter  a  retainer  of  the  Prince  of  Kagoshima,  having  been  called  to 
Yedo  and  made  subjects  of  the  shogun,  were  appointed  professors.  In 
the  third  year  of  Bunkiu  (A.  D.  1863)  the  school  was  placed  under  the 
management  of  the  Shohei  College,  and  named  the  Kaisei-jo.  In  this 
year  some  students  were  for  the  first  time  sent  to  study  in  England,  and 
the  study  of  European  mathematics  was  commenced  in  the  school.  In 
the  first  year  of  Kei-o  (A.  D.  1865)  a  Dutch  professor  was  engaged  to 
teach  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry.  At  this  time  students  of  the 
English,  French,  and  German  languages  increased  daily,  so  that  it  was 
found  necessary  to  enlarge  the  school-rooms  and  to  change  the  rules  of 
instruction. 

Early  Foreign  Scholars. — The  first  book  published  on  foreign  sub- 
jects is  by  Arai  Hakuseki,  and  it  was  only  after  the  appearance  of  this 
work  that  foreign  learning  was  taken  notice  of  in  this  country. 

The  first  European  nations  that  had  intercourse  with  Japan  were 
the  Portuguese  and  Dutch.  The  former  for  a  long  time  continued  their 
intercourse  with  the  country  ;  but  through  their  intrigue  with  the  local 
princes  of  the  western  coasts  they  became  odious  to  the  Government, 


I00  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

and  were  expelled  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  Kuanyei  (A.  D.  1639),  and  for- 
bidden to  return. 

At  this  time,  as  the  Dutch  were  of  service  to  this  country  in  explain- 
ing the  real  intentions  and  acts  of  the  Portuguese,  special  permission 
was  granted  them  to  carry  on  trade,  and  in  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Kuanyei  (A.  D.  1641)  the  port  of  Nagasaki,  in  Hizen,  was  opened,  mer- 
cantile houses  were  established,  and  this  was  made  the  seat  of  com- 
merce with  the  Dutch.  Once  a  year  some  one  from  the  Dutch  at  Na- 
gasaki paid  a  visit  of  respect  to  the  shogun's  government  at  Yedo  ;  and 
on  this  account  a  few  young  men  had  been  educated  to  act  as  inter- 
preters. But  these  had  not  been  allowed  to  learn  the  Dutch  letters  or 
to  read  Dutch  books,  but  had  been  obliged  to  acquire  their  knowledge 
of  the  Dutch  orally. 

The  Shogun  Yoshimune,  being  deeply  interested  in  his  astronomical 
and  calendrical  studies,  was  informed  that  the  Dutch  were  well  versed 
in  these  sciences.  He,  therefore,  called  Nishigawa  Joken,  a  native  of 
Nagasaki,  and  questioned  him  upon  these  matters. 

Upon  this  the  interpreters,  Nishi,  Yoshio,  and  others,  by  mutual 
agreement,  applied  to  the  Government  for  permission  to  learn  to  read 
and  write  Dutch.  During  the  period  of  Kioho  (A.  D.  1716-1735)  this 
permission  was  at  last  granted,  and  for  the  first  time  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage was  learned  from  books. 

The  Shogun  Yoshimune,  having  also  obtained  some  Dutch  books, 
so  much  admired  the  minuteness  of  their  engravings  that  he  desired  to 
know  the  meaning  of  the  explanatory  text.  There  was  at  this  time  a 
private  individual  called  Awoki  Bunzo,  who,  being  fond  of  study,  had 
by  special  permission  obtained  the  use  of  the  government  library  books. 
He  finally  was  made  Confucian  professor  to  the  Government.  The 
government  library  was  also  under  his  care,  and  he  continually  urged 
the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  Dutch  works.  Upon  this  the 
Shogun  Yoshimune  commanded  Bunzo  and  Noro  Genbun  to  apply 
themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Dutch  language  and  literature.  In  view 
of  this  these  two  men  were  present  at  the  receptions  of  the  annual 
messenger  from  Nagasaki,  in  order  to  hear  the  Dutch  language  spoken, 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  IOi 

and  they  found  that  with  the  aid  of  the  interpreters  they  were  able  to 
understand  the  meaning  of  what  was  said.  But,  owing  to  the  pecu- 
liarities of  the  foreign  idiom,  they  found  it  difficult  to  comprehend,  and 
were  much  embarrassed,  more  especially  as  it  was  only  once  a  year  that 
the  messenger  came.  Although  they  thus  studied  for  several  years, 
they  only  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet.  During  the  period  of 
Yenpo  (A.  D.  1673-1680)  they  received  orders  to  proceed  to  Naga- 
saki, where  they  studied  Dutch  with  Noshi  and  Yoshio,  and  eventually 
acquired  an  elementary  acquaintance  with  it.  Of  these  four  students, 
Yoshio  especially  devoted  himself  to  the  acquirement  of  this  language, 
and  for  the  benefit  of  future  students  desired  to  publish  a  Dutch  and 
Japanese  vocabulary ;  but  he  died  without  carrying  out  his  intention. 
Bunzo  remained  and  continued  his  studies  for  several  years,  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  about  four  hundred  words  of  daily  use,  of  the  various 
shapes  of  the  capitals  and  small  letters,  of  the  foreign  way  of  spelling 
monosyllables,  together  with  the  method  of  combining  syllables  into 
words.  He  then  returned  to  Yedo.  But  Yoshimune  had  died  some 
time  before  Bunzo's  return  to  Yedo,  and  his  position  was  not  the  same 
as  formerly,  for  he  found  himself  without  a  teacher,  without  fellow- 
learners,  and  without  books  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  could  on  this 
account  do  no  more  than  publish  the  books,  "  Dutch  Letters,"  "  Dutch 
Conversation,"  and  others. 

At  about  this  time  Mayeno  Kiotaku,  a  physician  in  the  service  of 
the  Prince  of  Nakatsu,  and  a  man  who  aspired  after  eminence,  and 
was  fond  of  reading  strange  and  curious  books,  accidentally  came 
across  the  fragment  of  a  Dutch  book.  Being  desirous  to  read  it,  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Bunzo,  and  Bunzo,  admiring  his  perseverance,  taught 
him  all  he  knew.  But  the  fragment  in  question  was  a  very  difficult 
one,  and,  although  day  and  night  were  devoted  to  study,  but  a  very 
small  portion  of  its  contents  was  understood.  The  Prince  of  Nakatsu, 
believing  that  Kiotaku's  desire  was  good,  sent  him  to  Nagasaki,  where 
he  learned  about  six  or  seven  hundred  more  words  and  then  returned. 
After  this  he  once  more  went  to  Nagasaki,  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  interpreters  only  knew  a  few  words,  and  that  none  were  able  to 


102  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

read  books  or  to  translate,  although  for  several  years  he  continually 
sought  from  them  a  more  perfect  knowledge,  he  failed  in  acquiring  any- 
thing but  the  mere  elements  of  the  Dutch  language.  Finally,  Kiotaku 
secretly  acquired  a  translated  vocabulary  and  several  medical  works, 
with  which  he  returned  to  Yedo.  Here,  with  the  aid  of  what  he  had 
learned,  as  well  as  by  the  aid  of  the  new  books,  he  learned  a  good  deal 
that  he  had  not  known  before,  and  after  six  or  seven  years,  by  his  own 
efforts,  acquired  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  Dutch  language.  He 
now  commenced  several  translations,  and  published  a  number  of  works 
compiled  from  the  Dutch.  In  the  third  year  of  Kiyowa  (A.  D.  1803) 
he  died,  at  the  age  of  eighty-one  years.  He  was  called  Rankiwa  Sensei. 
Before  this  the  family  of  Katsuragawa  had  successively,  from  father 
to  son,  been  the  shogun's  court-surgeons.  The  ancestor  of  this  family 
was  Morishima,  a  doctor  of  the  Prince  of  Hirato.  He  studied  under 
Arashiyama  Ho-an,  and  later  changed  his  surname  to  Katsuragawa. 
When  the  Shogun  lyenobu,  before  he  became  shogun,  was  in  Kofu,  he 
sent  for  Hochiku  to  be  his  body-physician.  Hochiku  afterward  became 
the  government  doctor.  His  great-grandson  Hosun  became  a  pupil  of 
Awoki  Bunzo,  and  Hoshiu  the  son  of  Hosun  was  very  desirous  to 
learn  Dutch.  He,  together  with  Sujita  Genpaku,  became  a  pupil  of 
Riotaku,  and  they  studied  diligently.  They  formed  a  society  called 
Komei  Shuja,  and  assisted  each  other,  hoping  thus  to  acquire  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  the  Dutch.  Gempaku  was  the  physician  of  the 
Prince  of  Obama,  and  his  father,  Hosun,  had  at  first  learned  Dutch 
surgery  from  Nishi  Soshun.  Gempo,  the  father  of  Soshun,  was  a  Dutch 
interpreter  at  Nagasaki,  and  was  afterward  employed  by  the  shogun's 
government  as  a  physician.  Gempaku  having  obtained  a  Dutch  ana- 
tomical work,  was  desirous  of  practically  comparing  its  teachings  with 
the  ancient  Japanese  beliefs  on  this  subject.  It  opportunely  happened 
at  this  time  that  the  Government  had  ordered  the  post-mortem  exami- 
nation of  an  executed  criminal  to  be  held,  and  Gempaku,  together  with 
Kiyotaku,  undertaking  the  work,  found  that  the  drawings  in  the  Dutch 
book  exactly  corresponded  with  the  real  organs.  From  this  it  was 
found  that  the  old  beliefs  were  incorrect.  He  desired,  therefore,  to 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  103 

have  this  anatomical  work  translated  and  brought  to  the  aid-  of  medi- 
cal science.  But  Gempaku  did  not  even  have  an  elementary  knowledge 
of  Dutch ;  on  this  account,  Kiotaku  was  made  chief,  and  thus  the 
work  was  in  a  fair  way  of  being  commenced.  The  help  of  the  inter- 
preters was  not  desired.  But,  as  a  member  of  the  committee  of  trans- 
lation, Gempaku  was  at  a  loss  where  to  commence.  He  first  applied 
himself  to  learning  the  Dutch  alphabet,  and  thus  went  on  till  he  grad- 
ually acquired  a  knowledge  of  words.  At  last  the  actual  work  of 
translation  was  commenced  ;  but  sometimes  the  translation  of  a  single 
word  would  occupy  more  than  a  day,  and  sometimes  several  days  were 
needed  to  translate  one  sentence.  In  view  of  these  difficulties,  the 
members  of  the  committee  declared  that  the  work  could  not  possibly 
be  achieved  ;  but  Gempaku  said,  "  It  is  possible  for  man  to  do  it,  but 
it  must  be  with  the  help  of  Heaven."  The  days  for  carrying  on  this 
work  were  fixed,  and  Hoshiu,  Nakagawa  Junan,  Mine  Shiunotai,  Toriya- 
ma  Shoyen,  and  Kiriyama  Shotetsu,  formed  themselves  into  a  regular  so- 
ciety. Without  once  ceasing,  these  men  consulted  and  worked  together 
year  after  year  ;  the  quantity  translated  increased,  and  they  gradually, 
and  unaided  by  others,  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  peculiarities  of  the 
Dutch  language,  so  that  in  each  successive  year  some  discrepancies 
were  discovered  in  the  translations  done  in  the  preceding  year.  In  this 
way,  during  a  period  of  four  years,  the  rough  sheets  were  rewritten  not . 
less  than  eleven  different  times  before  the  work  was  finished  at  last. 
This  work  was  called  "  A  New  Work  on  Analytical  Anatomy."  It  was 
engraved  and  published,  and  a  copy  presented  to  the  shogun's  govern- 
ment, and  to  the  principal  nobles  in  Kioto.  From  this  the  people  of 
the  empire  learned  that  it  was  possible  to  translate  Dutch  books,  and 
they  learned,  besides,  the  truth  respecting  the  human  frame ;  all  this 
they  owed  to  the  energy  and  perseverance  of  Gempaku. 

At  abouf  this  time  Otsuki  Moshitsu,  a  native  of  Sendai,  hearing 
that  Gempaku  was  engaged  in  translating  a  work  on  anatomy,  came  to 
Yedo,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Gempaku,  and  a  member  of  the  translat- 
ing society.  If  he  had  not  believed  in  the  practicability  of  his  work, 
he  would  not  have  joined  in  it,  and  he  was  a  man  who  only  wrote  what 


I04  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

he  thoroughly  understood.  Gempaku,  admiring  these  sterling  quali- 
ties, helped  and  encouraged  him,  and  thus  contributed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  his  talents.  Moshitsu  had  in  view,  not  only  the  medical  sci- 
ence, but  also  the  examination  of  the  Dutch  grammar,  and  Dutch 
books  in  general.  He  left  Gempaku,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Kiotaku, 
who,  also  admiring  the  earnestness  of  Moshitsu,  taught  him  without 
any  reserve  all  he  knew.  Nevertheless,  all  this  did  not  satisfy  Moshitsu. 
He  therefore  left  Kiotaku,  and  proceeded  to  Nagasaki,  where  he  more 
fully  studied  and  examined  various  Dutch  works.  He  then  returned  to 
Yedo,  and  published  the  work  "  Steps  to  the  Dutch  Language."  Be- 
fore this,  Awoki,  Mayeno  and  others  had  also  composed  books  on  the 
Dutch  language,  but  none  had  been  published.  Each  of  these  persons 
had  his  own  peculiar  method  of  translating  according  to  his  own  ideas 
of  the  grammar  of  the  Dutch  language.  Their  knowledge  had  been 
acquired  entirely  by  rote,  and  not  from  systematic  books.  They  were, 
therefore,  unable  to  express  correctly  the  sounds  ;  nor  were  they  more 
successful  in  syllabification.  But  the  work  treated  comprehensively  of 
the  combination  of  vowels  with  consonants,  and  of  several  syllables 
into  words,  the  main  principles  involved  in  the  structure  of  the  lan- 
guage and  the  correct  method  of  translating.  It  became,  therefore, 
now  possible  for  all  Japanese  to  learn  to  read  and  understand  Dutch 
books.  In  consequence  of  this  a  large  number  of  people  eminent  for 
talent  and  ability,  seeing  this  book,  became  desirous  to  study  the 
Dutch  language.  The  following  people  came  to  Yedo  and  became  pu- 
pils of  Moshitsu  :  Udagawa  Genzui,  a  doctor  of  Tsuyama  ;  Inamoura 
Sampaku,  a  doctor  of  Tottori ;  Yamamoura  Saisuke,  a  Samarai  of 
Tsuchi-ura ;  Yasuoka  Genshin,  a  native  of  Ise ;  Hashimoto  Tokichi, 
of  Osaka,  and  others.  In  the  fourth  year  of  Bunkwa  (A.  D.  1807)  diffi- 
culties with  the  Russians  took  place  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. In  the  following  year  the  appearance  of  the  English-  on  the  west- 
ern coast  caused  considerable  commotion.  The  Shogun's  government 
decided,  therefore,  to  make  itself  acquainted  with  the  condition  of  these 
two  countries,  and  Moshitsu  received  orders  to  compile  an  account  of 
these  countries  from  the  Dutch  books.  Accordingly,  he  composed  the 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  IO5 

works  in  regard  to  the  Russian  questions.  In  the  eighth  year  the  sho- 
gun's  government  paid  Moshitsu  twenty  ingots  of  silver,  and  continued 
this  payment  yearly,  making  him  translator  of  Dutch  works.  In  the 
fifth  year  of  Bunsei  (A.  D.  1822)  he  at  length  received  a  monthly  salary. 
The  above  was  the  first  instance  of  the  shogun's  government  directly 
encouraging  Western  learning. 

The  works  of  Moshitsu  were  very  numerous,  and  with,  a  spirit  simi- 
lar to  that  of  Gempaku,  he  published  the  revised  edition  of  the  new 
work  on  "  Analytical  Anatomy,"  which  entered  minutely  into  the  details 
of  the  science.  He  also  published  "  Strange  News  of  the  Seas  "  and 
"  Miscellaneous  Essays,"  etc.  In  the  tenth  year  of  Bunsei  (A.  D.  1827), 
he  died,  aged  seventy-one  years.  His  son  Genkan  followed  with  suc- 
cess his  father's  profession.  He,  too,  received  commands  from  the 
shogun's  government  to  translate  Dutch  works.  He  published  a 
small  work,  which  explained  the  peculiarities  of  Dutch  composition  ; 
this  was  the  first  work  purely  on  grammar.  Besides  this  he  published, 
also,  works  on  the  proper  pronunciation  of  Dutch.  At  this  time  there 
were  not  a  few  others  besides  Genkan  who  made  Dutch  learning  their 
occupation.  Among  these  was  Awoki  Rinso,  who,  devoting  himself 
to  natural  philosophy,  published  a  work  on  the  subject.  This  was  the 
first  work  on  natural  philosophy.  Kawamoto  Komin  was  a  pupil  of 
Rinso,  and  published  an  enlarged  edition  of  the  work  on  natural  phi- 
losophy. Yasuoka  Genshin  followed  this  by  publishing  a  work  which 
described  the  functions  of  the  external  and  internal  organs  of  the  human 
body.  To  Genshin  is  due  the  merit  of  advancing  medical  science.  His 
son  Yo-an  published  the  first  book  on  chemistry.  Mitsukuri  Gempo, 
of  the  same  clan  as  Genshin,  placed  himself  under  him  as  his  pupil. 
Gempo  devoted  himself  to  geography  and  history,  and  published  the 
works  on  those  subjects.  His  son  Seigo  also  composed  a  work  on  geog- 
raphy. The  son  of  Gempaku,  Hakugen,  acquired  his  father's  learning 
and  communicated  it  to  his  son  Seikei.  This  Seiki  was  eminent  for 
his  great  talents  and  extensive  knowledge,  having  finished  his  studies 
while  still  young.  He  composed  works  on  military  subjects.  All  the 
above-mentioned  men  devoted  their  energies  entirely  to  foreign  learning. 


I06  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Foreign  Medical  Science. — There  was  in  Yedo  an  institution  called 
the  Western  Medical  Science  School.  During  the  period  called  Tempo 
(A.  D.  1830-1843),  Ito  Gemboku,  a  doctor  in  the  service  of  the  Prince 
of  Saga,  Totsuka  Teikwai,  in  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Kagoshima, 
Otsuki  Shunsai,  in  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Sendai,  Hayashi  Tokai, 
in  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Kokura,  Takenouchi  Gendo,  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Prince  of  Maru-oka,  established  themselves  severally  in 
Yedo,  and  practised  medicine  successfully  on  European  principles. 
A  little  later,  in  the  hope  of  arresting  the  great  mortality  among  Jap- 
anese children  of  both  sexes,  they  added  vaccination  to  their  other 
practice.  In  the  fifth  year  of  Ansei  (A.  D.  1858),  the  above-mentioned 
doctors  having  formed  themselves  into  a  society,  established,  with  the 
permission  of  the  Government,  a  private  institution  for  vaccination. 
During  this  year  the  Shogun  lyesada  being  sick,  sent  for  Gemboku, 
Gendo,  and  Teikwai,  and  made  them  his  court-physicians.  This  is  the 
first  instance  in  which  physicians  of  the  European  school,  who  were 
not  also  surgeons,  were  appointed  to  the  dignity  of  court-physicians. 
Upon  being  appointed  to  this  rank,  they  made  over  to  the  Government 
their  vaccination  institution.  Shunsai  and  Tokai  being  made  directors 
of  the  institution,  three  classes  of  students  were  established,  i.  e.,  a 
general  medical  class,  an  anatomy  class,  and  a  vaccination  class,  and 
Ishikawa  Osho,  Tsuboi  Shindo,  and  others,  were  appointed  teachers. 
The  following  year,  this  institution  having  been  burnt,  a  new  one  was 
built,  to  which  was  attached  a  lecture-room,  and  chambers  for  use  of 
the  pupils,  and  Shunsai  was  made  sole  director.  The  current  expenses 
of  this  institution  were  borne  by  the  Government.  In  the  first  year  of 
Bunkiu  (A.  D.  1861)  the  institution,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from 
another  medical  school  where  Chinese  medical  art  was  taught,  was 
named  the  European  Medical  School.  In  the  second  year  of  Bunkiu 
(A.  D.  1862)  a  chemical  department  was  added  to  the  institution,  and  a 
class  for  physiology  was  formed,  and  physiological  works  were  pub- 
lished. In  this  year  the  director,  Shunsai,  died,  and  his  son  Genohun 
was  appointed  in  his  place,  Gemboku,  Gendo,  and  Tokai,  being  appoint- 
ed to  advise  him.  Later  on  Ogata  Ko-an  was  sent  from  Osaka  to  re- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN,  1O7 

place  these  three.  Previous  to  this,  Matsumoto  Riojun  and  others  had 
been  sent  to  Nagasaki  to  study  medicine  with  a  Dutch  physician. 
Afterward  Gempaku,  the  son  of  Gemboku,  and  Kenkai,  the  son  of 
Tokai,  were  sent  to  Holland  to  study  medicine.  Later  on  Riojun  opened 
a  medical  school  at  Nagasaki,  which  was  entirely  built  and  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  Dutch  system. 

In  the  first  year  of  Genji  (A.  D.  1864)  Ko-an  died,  and  to  replace  him 
Riojun  was  called  from  Nagasaki,  and  he  reformed  and  amended  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  the  institution,  and  made  it  much  more  pros- 
perous. 

The  medical  school  at  Nagasaki  was  opened  in  the  first  year  of  Bun- 
kiu  (A.  D.  1861),  Matsumoto  Riojun  having  obtained  the  permission  of 
the  shogun's  government  for  this  purpose.  At  this  time  it  was  only  at 
Nagasaki  that  medical  students  received  foreign  instruction,  and  the 
teachers  in  all  cases  were  Dutch  doctors.  Riojun  having  learned  from 
the  Dutch  doctors  the  rules  and  regulations  of  military  and  public  hos- 
pitals, established  for  the  first  time  at  Nagasaki  a  hospital.  Although 
the  principal  object  was  the  healing  of  the  sick,  still  a  medical  class  was 
attached  to  it,  and  a  medical  professor  was  engaged  from  Holland  which 
increased  its  prosperity  greatly.  After  this  Riojun  was  called  to  Yedo, 
to  take  office  in  the  medical  school.  In  the  first  year  of  Kei-o  (A.  D. 
1865),  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  class-rooms  were  added  to 
the  Nagasaki  Medical  School,  and  a  Dutch  professor  was  engaged  to 
teach  these  sciences. 

In  the  third  year  of  Bunkiu  (A.  D.  1863)  there  was  also  established  at 
Nagasaki  a  foreign-language  school,  at  which  the  five  following  lan- 
guages were  taught  by  professors  engaged  from  each  of  the  countries 
named,  i.  e.,  Chinese,  Dutch,  English,  French,  and  Russian.  The  divi- 
sion into  classes  and  the  manner  of  teaching  were  such  as  prevailed  in 
the  several  countries  from  which  the  professors  had  been  obtained. 
Later  on  mathematics  were  also  taught.  At  this  time  one  of  the  pro- 
fessors, an  American,  having  an  extensive  knowledge  of  Japanese,  was 
a  very  successful  instructor,  so  that  the  number  of  students  increased 
greatly. 


108  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

The  above-mentioned  institutions  and  schools,  together  with  the 
Osaka  Medical  School  and  the  Hakodate  Hospital,  were  all  established 
by  the  shogun's  government.  At  the  time  of  the  restoration,  the  Im- 
perial Government  took  over  these  institutions,  revised  and  improved  the 
regulations,  and  enlarged  their  scope.  At  the  present  day  these  are 
the  centres  from  which  scientific  knowledge  is  diffused. 

Printing  under  the  Shoguns. — During  the  sixteenth  century  the 
political  troubles  in  the  empire  and  contests  of  warlike  factions  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  most  of  the  educational  institutions  of  the  empire. 
Books  which  had  been  gathered  into  libraries,  or  collected  in  private 
houses,  were  scattered  or  destroyed.  A  military  spirit  sprung  up  in  the 
country,  which  was  unfavorable  to  the  cultivation  of  literature  and  the 
production  of  books. 

Previous  to  this  period,  the  art  of  printing  had  made  considerable 
progress  in  the  country.  As  early  as  the  fourth  year  of  Jingo  Kei-un 
(A.  D.  770)  the  Empress  Koken  had  caused  to  be  prepared  a  large  edition 
of  the  Buddhist  canonical  book,  and  distributed  it  among  the  Buddh- 
ist temples  throughout  the  empire.  This  book  was  printed  from  the 
wooden  blocks  in  the  ordinary  style  of  printing  Chinese  and  Japanese. 
In  this  method  of  printing,  a  block  is  made  for  each  page  of  the  book, 
which  is  used  like  a  stereotype  plate  of  the  present  day.  These  blocks 
are  made  from  wood,  by  cutting  away  the  intervals  between  the  letters 
and  leaving  the  face  of  the  letters  standing  in  relief.  For  the  purpose 
of  printing  from  these  blocks  they  are  laid  face  upward  on  a  flat  table. 
The  ink  is  put  on  with  the  flat  brush.  Then  the  sheet  of  paper  is  laid 
upon  the  face  of  the  block,  and  pressed  down  upon  it  by  means  of  a 
soft  pad  or  rubber.  A  single  block  contains  two  pages.  The  paper  is 
printed  only  on  one  side,  and  then  folded  into  a  single  leaf. 

Printing  with  movable  types  was  probably  introduced  into  Japan 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  was  never  extensively  used  until  a  very 
recent  time.  These  types  at  first  were  made  from  wood,  but  now  are 
made  from  type-metal  in  the  usual  manner. 

Printing  with  movable  type  is  a  matter  of  more  difficulty  in  the  Jap- 
anese language  than  in  European  languages.  Ordinary  books  require 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  IO9 

at  least  five  thousand  different  types.  In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  how- 
ever, movable  types  have  been  extensively  introduced,  and  all  of  the 
newspapers  are  now  printed  with  them. 

Accession  to  power  of  the  Tokugawa  family  restored  peace  to  the 
country,  and  was  followed  by  a  great  revival  in  the  printing  and  col-- 
lection of  books.  The  great  historical  works  which  were  undertaken 
under  the  patronage  of  the  shogun  and  different  daimios  were  printed 
with  blocks  at  their  expense. 

A  class  of  booksellers  and  book-publishers  grew  up  in  the  country, 
and  a  regular  system  of  copyright  and  censorship  is  found  to  have 
existed  for  the  last  two  centuries. 

Provincial  and  Private  Schools  under  the  Shoguns. — Toward  the 
close  of  the  Ashikaga  dynasty,  ambitious  and  warlike  leaders  sprung 
up  in  every  part  of  Japan,  and  divided  the  country  among  themselves  ; 
the  more  powerful  continually  sought  to  increase  their  dominions,  conse- 
quently an  unceasing  state  of  warfare  prevailed  ;  the  larger  absorbed  the 
smaller,  and  the  more  powerful  subdued  the  weaker.  For1  a  long  time 
this  unsettled  condition  prevailed,  until  Ota  Nobunaga  and  Toyotomi 
Hideyoshi,  by  their  superior  prowess,  brought  them  all  to  a  state  of  sub- 
jection. From  this  time  dales  the  commencement  of  the  feudal  system. 
Although  the  daimios  were  subdued,  still  they  each  in  their  several 
countries  ruled  their  retainers  by  their  own  laws,  and  in  each  country 
the  education  of  the  young  was  encouraged  by  the  chiefs.  In  the  fol- 
lowing pages  is  a  brief  account  of  the  most  prominent  means  employed 
for  this  purpose. 

In  the  fifteenth  year  Tenshio  (A.  D.  1587),  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi  re- 
duced the  country  of  Satsuma  to  a  state  of  obedience ;  and  at  this  time 
he  made  Kobaya  Kawa  feudal  lord  of  the  province  of  Chikuzen.  This 
prince  fostered  and  encouraged  education  in  his  province,  and  estab- 
lished a  school,  on  the  plan  of  the  Ashikaga  College,  .in  Shimotsuke. 
Owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country,  learning  had  been  universally 
neglected,  and  nobody  paid  attention  to  it  except  Kobaya  Kawa,  and 
he  was  the  first  who  took  measures  for  the  education  of  the  military 
class.  Nevertheless,  after  his  death  this  school  seems  to  have  been 


HO  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

neglected,  so  that  it  is  difficult  now  to  find  out  the  rules  and  regulations 
that  once  were  in  force  there. 

In  Yechigo,  the  feudal  lord,  Uyesugi  Kagekatsu,  and  his  son  of  the 
same  name,  were  fond  of  learning ;  and  Naoye  Kanetsugu,  their  re- 
tainer, too,  was  desirous  that  the  education  of  the  people  should  be 
encouraged.  Afterward  Kagekatsu  was  transferred  to  Dewa.  Here 
he  established  a  school  where  his  retainers  received  instruction.  After- 
ward Harunori,  the  grandson  of  Kagekatsu,  reformed  and  enlarged 
this  school  so  much,  that  it  became  celebrated  throughout  the  north 
and  east. 

Toshitsune,  the  son  of  Mayeda  Toshinaga,  who  had  received  the 
three  provinces  of  Kaga,  Noto,  and  Yechiu,  as  his  dominion,  established 
schools  where  the  young  men  of  his  retainers  were  taught  literature  and 
military  science.  At  a  later  period  Toshitsune  retired  to  the  castle  of 
Komatsu,  where  he  established  a  local  school. 

Ikeda  Terumasa,  the  feudal  lord  of  Bizen,  was  a  great  admirer  of 
literature,  and  intrusted  the  government  of  his  country  to  the  scholar 
Kumazawa  Riokai.  In  the  ninth  year  of  Kuambun  (A.  D.  1669)  he 
established  a  new  school  called  Shirutane,  open  to  the  civil  and  military 
classes.  To  this  school  was  attached  a  department  for  teaching  mili- 
tary exercises.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  schools,  the  other  fiefs 
were  not  without  their  schools.  In  these  schools,  although  the  rules 
were  various,  still  the  principles  of  education  were  equally  recognized 
in  all.  The  principal  and  most  prosperous  among  these  schools  were 
in  Owari,  Mito,  Saga,  Kumamoto,  Kagoshima,  Sendai,  Aidzu,  Hagi, 
Kubota,  and  Ise.  In  each  of  these  rules  were  established,  classes 
formed,  and  the  young  of  the  province  taught.  On  this  account  it  is 
not  surprising  that  at  the  present  day  learned  scholars  and  men  of  tal- 
ent abound  in  these  provinces. 

The  above  is  an  account  of  the  schools  established  by  the  feudal 
lords  after  the  ascendency  of  the  Tokugawa  dynasty  ;  but  as  yet  there 
were  few  private  schools  that  had  attained  to  any  celebrity,  although 
learned  men  had  devoted  themselves  to  teaching  scholars  collected  around 
them,  and  had  opened  boarding-schools,  where  literature  and  penman- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  tll 

ship  were  taught.  Although  private  schools  did  not  flourish,  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  they  lacked  the  encouragement  and  support  of  the 
local  government.  Among  them  there  were  some  that  were  continued 
from  generation  to  generation  in  the  same  family.  Those  that  became 
most  flourishing  and  were  regarded  with  the  greatest  respect  in  Japan, 
were  one  in  Kioto  founded  by  Ito  Itei,  and  one  in  Osaka  founded  by  Na- 
kai  Shin-an.  Itei  in  his  youth  embraced  the  classical  teachings  of  the 
Chinese  authors  of  the  period  of  So,  and  he  was  the  author  of  two 
works  on  philosophy ;  but  later  he  came  to  believe  that  the  Chinese 
authors,  Tei  and  Shu,  did  not  express  in  their  writings  the  true  and 
original  meaning  of  the  Chinese  classics.  He  therefore  discontinued 
their  use,  and  introduced  in  their  place  a  set  of  doctrines  of  his  own 
composition.  This  school  being  built  in  Horikawa,  was  commonly 
called  and  known  as  the  Horikawa  School.  Choin,  the  son  of  Itei, 
supported  the  family  fame  for  learning.  On  the  death  of  Choin,  his  son 
Zensho  being  very  young,  Choken,  the  uncle  of  Zensho,  returned  from 
Kii,  and  for  ten  years  took  the  direction  of  the  school  upon  himself, 
after  which  Zensho  undertook  its  management.  Kii  followed  his 
father's  example,  and  by  him,  too,  the  reputation  of  the  family  name  was 
upheld.  This  school  was  carried  on  by  the  descendants  of  the  family 
without  a  break  till  the  thirteenth  year  of  Tempo  (A.  D.  1642).  By  a 
special  order  of  the  Government  the  land-tax  on  the  school-premises 
was  remitted.  From  the  foundation  of  the  school  by  Itei  to  the  thir- 
teenth year  of  Tempo  was  a  period  of  about  ninety  years. 

In  the  eleventh  year  of  Kioho  (A.  D.  1726),  Shinan  having  applied 
for  and  obtained  the  government  permission,  founded  the  Osaka  City 
School.  At  this  time  Miake  Seimei  was  made  master,  and  Juntei  made 
assistant  teacher. 

The  inhabitants  of  Osaka  being  principally  devoted  to  commercial 
pursuits,  learning  was  not  thought  of  much  account  by  them.  The 
school  established  by  Shuan  was  the  first  one  opened  in  that  city  ;  and 
seeing  that  he  selected  such  competent  men  as  teachers,  he  deserves 
great  praise.  Later  Juntei  left  Osaka  and  went  to  Yedo,  upon  which 
Shuan  himself  taught  in  the  school.  After  a  lapse  of  several  years 


JI2  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Juntei  returned  and  resumed  his  duties  in  the  school.  On  the  death 
of  Shuan  and  Juntei,  Sekizen,  the  son  of  Shuan,  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  school.  Seki/en  was  noted  for  his  great  knowledge  and  literary 
powers.  He  composed  an  historical  work  of  thirteen  volumes,  and  pre- 
sented it  to  the  shogun's  government.  The  Government  sent  in  return 
to  Sekizen  money  for  repairs,  etc.,  for  his  school. 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  JAPAN.  ,  x  3 


CHAPTER   IV. 
EDUCATION   SINCE  THE  REVOLUTION. 

IN  October  of  the  third  year  of  Kei-o  (A.  D.  1867),  the  Shogun 
Tokugawa  Keiki  resigned  into  the  imperial  hands  the  office  which  his 
family  had  held  for  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  During 
that  period  the  chief  executive  power  had  been  held  by  the  shogun  at 
his  capital  in  Yedo.  The  nominal  authority  had,  however,  always  re- 
mained in  the  person  of  the  mikado,  who  maintained  his  court  at  the 
imperial  capital,  Kioto.  The  change  which  resulted  from  the  resump- 
tion of  authority  by  the  mikado  affected  all  departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment. It  has  required  several  years  of  experiment  to  adapt  the  forms 
of  government  and  administration  to  the  altered  circumstances.  For 
a  time  the  old  adherents  of  the  shogunate  resisted  by  force  of  arms 
the  cession  of  power  into  the  imperial  hands.  But  in  1869  all  oppo- 
sition ceased,  and  since  that  time  the  process  of  reformation  in  the 
Government  has  gone  on  rapidly  and  successfully. 

A  Year-Period  adopted. — In  the  year  1868,  on  the  death  of  the 
old  mikado,  and  the  accession  of  his  son,  the  present  mikado,  the  year- 
name  was  changed  to  Meiji.  This  system  of  a  year-name  was  bor- 
rowed from  China,  and  the  changes  were  made  at  frequent  and  irreg- 
ular intervals.  Some  lucky  or  unlucky  event  generally  formed  the 
pretext  for  making  the  change.  In  the  present  instance  the  period 
is  made  to  correspond  with  the  reign  of  the  mikado.  The  first  year 
of  Meiji  corresponded  with  the  2528th  year  of  the  imperial  dynasty, 
from  the  accession  of  Jimmu  Tenno,  and  with  the  1 868th  year  of  the 
Christian  era. 

In  the  year  1869  the  Government  was  removed  from  the  former  cap- 


H4  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

ital,  Kioto,  to  Yedo,  and,  in  order  that  the  event  might  be  duly  signal- 
ized, the  new  capital  was  called  Tokio. 

The  new  Government  early  gave  its  attention  to  the  subject  of 
education,  and,  in  the  years  of  transition  which  preceded  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  present  Department  of  Education,  made  many  important 
movements  toward  giving  to  the  nation  an  adequate  educational  sys- 
tem. Some  of  the  most  important  of  the  measures  we  shall  proceed 
to  enumerate,  premising,  however,  that,  as  they  were  tentative  in  their 
character,  they  were  often  superseded  or  modified. 

First  Educational  Measures. — In  the  third  month  of  1868,  the 
Imperial  Government  took  its  first  step  in  educational  matters,  by  es- 
tablishing a  school  in  Kioto  for  the  promotion  of  literature.  An  organ- 
ization something  like  the  old  national  university  which  had  existed  in 
the  middle  ages  was  reestablished,  and  to  it  was  intrusted  the  super- 
vision of  educational  affairs.  The  theory  of  this  university,  it  will  be 
remembered,  was,  that  it  should  serve  as  a  means  for  training  up  the 
young  men  of  the  noble  classes  for  public  service.  It  was,  moreover, 
not  merely  a  college  for  study,  but  an  educational  board  for  the  exam- 
ination and  licensure  of  the  candidates  for  official  positions. 

In  order  to  train  suitable  men  for  the  new  duties  which  were  now 
to  be  devolved  upon  the  Imperial  Government,  an  order  was  issued 
urging  upon  the  court  nobles  the  importance  of  cultivating  their  tal- 
ents and  acquiring  a  knowledge  which  would  be  of  practical  use  in  the 
official  duties  which  they  might  be  called  upon  to  fulfill ;  and  calling 
attention  to  the  new  educational  board  which  had  been  organized. 
The  Government  also  took  measures  to  carry  on  the  educational  work 
which  had  been  begun  by  the  shogun.  In  the  fifth  month  the  foreign- 
language  school  at  Nagasaki  was  taken  under  government  protection, 
and  its  rules  and  regulations  were  reformed.  The  hospital  at  Naga- 
saki was  also  taken  over,  and  provision  made  for  instruction  in  medi- 
cine. A  hospital  was  also  built  at  Kioto.  In  the  sixth  month  all  the 
educational  institutions  in  Tokio  were  taken  under  government  control, 
teachers  were  obtained  for  the  medical  school,  and  instruction  was 
commenced.  Before  this  a  hospital  had  been  opened  at  Yokohama, 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  H5 

for  the  treatment  of  wounded  soldiers,  which  was  now  removed  to 
Tokio  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  medical  school.  A  school  of  chem- 
istry and  physics  was  established  in  the  city  of  Osaka,  and  extensive 
provision  was  made  for  instruction.  A  temporary  military  school  was 
also  opened  at  Kioto  in  the  eighth  month,  especially  designed  for 
training  the  court  nobility  in  the  military  duties  which  were  now  re- 
quired of  them.  A  Chinese  medical  school,  which  had  been  maintained 
in  Tokio,  was  now  converted  into  a  dispensary  for  vaccination  ;  and 
this,  together  with  an  infirmary  and  other  medical  institutions,  was 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  medical  school.  The  College  of  Con- 
fucius, which  had  attained  great  fame  under  the  shogunate,  was  now, 
after  having  been  suspended  on  account  of  the  civil  war,  reopened ; 
and  in  the  ninth  month  the  Foreign-Language  School,  which  had 
also  been  for  a  time  suspended,  was  resumed,  and  a  room  for  the 
discussion  of  general  subjects  was  opened  in  connection  with  it. 

Reestablishment  of  the  University  at  Kioto. — In  this  same  month 
an  imperial  edict  was  issued  directing  the  establishment  of  a  national 
university  for  the  promotion  of  literary  and  military  education.  This 
design,  however,  was  not  carried  out.  The  pressure  of  business  made 
it  impossible  for  the  Government  to  enter  upon  this  scheme  at  that 
time.  As  a  temporary  expedient,  a  school  for  Japanese  learning  was 
opened  at  Kioto,  where  the  court  nobles,  the  government  officers,  and 
others,  might  acquire  literary  and  practical  culture.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  excellent  principles  promulgated  in  connection  with 
the  establishment  of  this  school : 

1.  It  is  incumbent  on  every  citizen  to  understand  the  nature  of  the 
public  institutions  of  his  country,  and  to  become  familiar  with  the  du- 
ties pertaining  to  his  position  in  society. 

2.  Foreign  learning,  both  Chinese  and  European,  must  be  made  to 
subserve  the  interests  of  Japan.    The  past  calamities  of  the  empire 
have  been  due  to  the  usurpation  of  power  and  the  neglect  of  their  appro- 
priate duties  on  the  part  of  the  military  chiefs.     Hereafter  let  all  adhere 
strictly  and  honestly  to  the  duties  belonging  to  their  respective  stations. 

3.  Useless  styles  of  composition,  and  aimless  discourses  and  dis- 


n6  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

cussions,  ought  to  be  abandoned  in  the  future  methods  of  education  ; 
and  the  literary  and  military  branches  of  learning  ought  to  be  so  culti- 
vated as  to  be  mutually  helpful. 

4.  Japanese  and  Chinese  learning  are  not  antagonistic,  and  there- 
fore the  students  of  these  systems,  forgetting  their  former  conflicts, 
should  show  forbearance  toward  each  other. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1868  a  proclamation  was  issued  to  the 
following  effect :  "  Japanese  learning  has  of  late  greatly  declined,  so  that 
the  honor  of  the  country  in  its  relations  with  foreign  nations  has  been 
materially  prejudiced.  It  is  now  the  intention  of  the  Government  to 
take  measures  to  revive  Japanese  learning,  and  it  is  earnestly  desired 
that  every  one,  by  diligent  study  and  by  encouraging  sound  scholarship, 
should  aid  in  this  work." 

On  the  reopening  of  the  Foreign-Language  School  at  Tokio,  the 
buildings  formerly  used  were  then  occupied  as  military  barracks.  Hence 
temporarily  the  school  occupied  other  quarters  ;  but,  in  the  twelfth 
month,  it  was  again  put  in  possession  of  its  own  buildings  near  Shitotsu- 
bashi  gate. 

In  the  first  month  of  the  second  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1869)  the  restric- 
tions in  regard  to  rank  were  abolished  in  reference  to  students  admitted 
to  the  College  of  Confucius,  and  to  the  Foreign- Language  School.  Eng- 
lish and  French  teachers  were  engaged  for  the  Foreign-Language  School, 
and  the  students  were  separated  into  two  divisions,  the  first  to  be  taught 
by  foreign  teachers,  and  the  second  by  Japanese. 

Publication  of  Newspapers,  etc. — In  the  third  month  the  publication 
of  newspapers  was  sanctioned  by  the  Government.  This  is  believed  to 
have-  been  the  first  public  recognition  of  the  modern  newspaper, 
an  institution  which  has  received  a  remarkable  development  since 
that  time  in  Japan.  The  bureau  for  their  management  was  for  a 
time  connected  with  the  Department  of  Education,  but  subse- 
quently was  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Home  Affairs.  At 
the  time  «f  this  first  sanctioning  of  newspapers,  there  was  also 
established  a  bureau  for  the  compilation  and  correction  of  historical 
records. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I17 

In  the  fouith  month  a  Chinese  classical  lecture-room  was  opened  at 
the  College  of  Confucius,  in  Tokio,  at  which  the  court  nobles,  the  dai- 
mios,  the  lesser  nobles,  and  public  officers,  attended.  This  was  designed 
as  a  method  of  mutual  improvement,  in  order  to  give  to  the  leading  men 
of  the  day  an  opportunity  to  increase  their  culture  and  their  knowledge 
of  affairs.  There  seems  to  have  been  a  division  into  classes  for  the 
better  attainment  of  their  purposes.  There  was  the  class  of  explana- 
tion, the  class  of  mutual  improvement,  the  class  of  inquiry,  and  the 
class  of  debate.  The  attendants  were  allowed  liberty  of  choice  in  regard 
to  which  of  these  classes  they  would  join. 

Further  arrangements  were  about  this  time  also  made  for  the  College 
of  Confucius,  and  the  Foreign-Language  School.  In  each  provision  was 
made  for  three  hundred  pupils  to  be  boarded  and  taught.  Instruction  in 
the  German  language  was  commenced  in  the  Foreign-Language  School. 
New  buildings  for  the  School  of  Chemistry  and  Physics  in  Osaka  were 
completed.  In  the  Medical  School  at  Nagasaki,  mathematics,  physics, 
and  chemistry,  were  added  to  the  regular  course,  and  a  Dutch  teacher 
was  engaged  to  teach  these  branches. 

Educational  Regulations. — In  the  seventh  month  a  government 
edict  was  issued,  defining  the  duties  of  the  several  officers  of  the  Educa- 
tional Board.  The  chief  officer  of  this  board  was  charged  with  the 
direction  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  and  of  the  Board  of  His- 
torical Compilation,  as  well  as  with  the  general  superintendence  of  the 
city  and  provincial  schools.  The  relative  ranks  in  which  teachers  had 
before  been  classed  were  abolished,  and  the  new  ranks  of  senior,  middle, 
and  junior  professor,  and  senior,  middle,  and  junior  teacher,  were  substi- 
tuted. The  officers  of  all  the  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  Educa- 
tional Board  were  also  classified.  For  each  school  there  were  appointed 
a  supervisor  of  students,  a  school-monitor,  and  a  clerk.  Rules  and 
regulations  for  the  schools  were  gradually  introduced,  and  a  better  sys- 
tem of  education  was  thus  step  by  step  established. 

In  the  ninth  month  a  hospital  and  a  foreign-language  school  were 
established  at  Osaka.  Shortly  afterward  a  regulation  was  adopted  by 
the  Government  confirming  in  their  profession  all  physicians  in  their 


TI8  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

service  above  thirty  years  of  age,  and  confiding  all  below  that  age  to  the 
care  of  the  Educational  Board  for  further  instruction  and  examination. 
A  medical  school  was  also  opened  at  Osaka  in  connection  with  the  hos- 
pital at  that  place.  The  medical  establishments  in  Tokio  where  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  systems  were  taught  were  placed  in  the  charge 
of  the  Educational  Board,  and  provision  was  made  for  instruction  to  be 
given  by  competent  native  physicians. 

In  the  first  month  of  the  third  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1870)  additional 
regulations  were  issued  in  regard  to  the  admission  of  students  to  the 
Foreign-Language  School  at  Tokio,  and  to  the  National  University. 
As  the  latter  of  these  give  some  idea  of  the  views  of  education  which 
prevailed  at  that  time,  we  add  a  summary  of  them  as  follows  : 

1.  Principles  of  Learning. — The  principles  of  law  exist  in  all  things, 
and  have  so  existed  from  all  time.     They  show  themselves  in  the  three 
natural  relations  which  bind  society  together,  viz.,  justice  between  mas- 
ter and  servant,  affection  between  father  and  son,  and  the  affection 
between  husband  and  wife.     They  also  are  manifest  in  the  five  cardinal 
virtues  of  humanity,  viz.,  humanity,  uprightness,  propriety,  wisdom,  and 
sincerity.     In  public  affairs  they  serve  to  secure  good  administration  in 
civil  and  criminal  cases.     A  school  is  an  institution  in  which  these  prin- 
ciples are  taught,  so  that  they  may  be  practically  followed  throughout 
the  country.     It  is  essential  that  in  the  young  men  of  a  nation  should  be 
inculcated  the  principles  of  filial  piety,  of  brotherly  love,  of  the  just  rela- 
tions between  master  and  servant,  parent  and  child,  husband  and  wife, 
and  brethren  and  friends.     It  is  equally  essential  that  they  should  be 
educated  in  all  the  domestic  and  public  virtues,  so  that  the  duties  which 
relate  to   the   state  and   to   individuals   may  both   be   faithfully  per- 
formed. 

2.  Educational  System. — Near  the  imperial  residence  a  university 
has  been  established.     In  each  of  the  cities  and  provinces  middle  and 
elementary  schools  will  be  organized  under  regulations  issued  by  the 
university.     In  these,  talents  which  may  eventually  be  of  service  to  the 
state  will  be  cultivated.     The  university  is  designed  to  be  the  culminat- 
ing point  at  which  the  most  advanced  students  may  be  collected,  and 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  H9 

where  their  education  may  be  completed.  For  admission  to  the  univer- 
sity the  full  quota  of  studies  in  the  lower  schools  must  be  finished,  and 
an  examination  passed. 

3.  Regulations  for  sending  Students  from  the  Provinces  to  the 
University. — The  limit  as  to  age  will  be  thirty  years.     The  local  exam- 
ination must  be  passed  and  a  government  certificate  obtained.    Those 
admitted  are  to  have  the  title  of  "  university  students."     Liberty  of 
selecting  the  course  of  study  is  to  be  allowed,  but  when  selected  the 
course  to  be  pursued  throughout.    The  duration  of  a  course  in  the  uni- 
versity is  to  be  three  years,  after  which  the  students  return  to  their 
own  provinces.     In  case  of  vacancy  students  are  to  be  admitted  from 
the  local  schools. 

4.  Manner  of  Examination. — Examinations  are  to  be  held  in  the 
middle  months  of  spring  and  autumn.     The  students  are  to  be  exam- 
ined upon  those  branches  which  they  have  pursued.     They  are  also  to 
be  required  to  prepare  an  original  essay  upon  some  assigned  subject. 
The  results  of  these  examinations  are  to  be  compared  by  the  teachers. 
If  any  exhibit  unusual  talent,  and  their  conduct  has  also  been  without 
fault,  they  are  to  be  reported  specially  to  the  Government,  in  order  that 
if  their  services  are  required  they  may  be  appointed  to  office. 

5.  School  Expenses. — The  amount  to  be  allowed  for  educational  pur- 
poses in  each  city  and  province  is  to  be  fixed  in  proportion  to  their  local 
revenues. 

6.  Departments  of  Study. — In  the  university  there  shall  be  five  de- 
partments of  study,  each  having  its  respective  branches  as  follows : 

(i.)  Religion. — Shinto  doctrines  ;  moral  philosophy. 

(2.)  Law. — Politics  ;  civil  law ;  commercial  law  ;  criminal  law ;  civil 
procedure ;  international  law ;  political  economy ;  regulations  of  court 
etiquette ;  statistics. 

(3.)  Science. — Physics  ;  astronomy ;  geology  ;  mineralogy  ;  zoology ; 
botany  ;  chemistry  ;  mechanical  power  ;  machinery  ;  mathematics  ;  sur- 
veying ;  architecture. 

(4.)  Medicine. — In  the  preparatory  division,  mathematics  ;  physics  ; 
chemistry  ;  mineralogy  ;  zoology  ;  botany  ;  metrology.  In  the  principal 


120  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

division,  anatomy  ;  physiology ;  artiology  ;  acology ;  toxicology ;  post- 
mortem examinations  ;  medical  jurisprudence  ;  surgery ;  therapeutics  ; 
hygiene. 

(5.)  Literature. — History ;  biography ;  literature  ;  philosophy. 

Rules  were  also  made  for  the  middle  and  elementary  schools.  For 
the  elementary  schools  the  pupils  were  to  be  between  eight  and  fifteen 
years  of  age;  and  for  the  middle  schools,  from  sixteen  years  upward. 
The  studies  assigned  were  reading,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  geography, 
and  foreign  languages.  In  the  last  part  of  the  middle-school  course  they 
were  to  be  taught  the  elements  of  one  of  the  courses  of  study  assigned  for 
the  university.  Selections  were  to  be  made  for  the  entrance  to  the  uni- 
versity in  accordance  with  the  talents  displayed.  A  selection  of  books 
to  be  read  in  each  of  the  departments  was  made,  and  the  students  re- 
quired to  read  and  study  these. 

Astronomy  and  the  compilation  of  the  national  almanac  had  for 
many  generations  been  the  special  pursuit  of  the  family  of  Tsuchi- 
Mikado.  The  old  observatory  which  had  existed  at  Yedo  had  already 
been  abolished.  In  order  to  provide  for  this  branch  of  science,  an  office 
was  established  in  connection  with  the  university,  where  the  calcula- 
tions for  the  almanacs  were  made,  and  from  which  they  were  annually 
distributed. 

Revision  of  the  Educational  System. — In  the  summer  of  this  year, 
so  much  discussion  arose  in  regard  to  educational  matters,  that  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  remodel  the  entire  system,  and  for  this  purpose  an 
imperial  edict  was  issued,  temporarily  closing  the  schools,  and  sending 
the  students  to  their  homes.  The  Foreign-Language  School  at  To- 
kio  was  continued,  and  the  local  authorities  of  the  provinces  were  re- 
quired to  send  their  quotas  of  students.  The  number  to  be  sent  from 
each  province  was  determined  according  to  its  population.  Several 
students  were  at  the  same  time  sent  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  pursuing 
their  education. 

In  the  twelfth  month  all  venders  of  medicines  were  required  to  have 
their  stock  examined  by  the  medical  school,  and  to  apply  for  a  license 
to  sell  them.  All  persons  desiring  to  open  private  schools,  or  to  en- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I2l 

gage  in  teaching  the  arts  and  sciences,  were  also  required  to  procure 
permission  from  the  local  governments. 

Originally  the  students  in  foreign  countries  had  been  under  the  care 
of  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs.  They  were  sent  in  some  cases 
by  departments  of  the  Government,  and  in  other  cases  by  the  local 
governments  of  the  provinces  to  which  they  belonged.  Others,  again, 
went  abroad  as  students  at  their  private  expense.  In  consequence  of 
these  several  methods  of  sending  students,  they  were  of  various  de- 
grees of  talent,  age,  and  advancement.  For  these  reasons  the  care 
and  direction  of  these  students  for  the  future  were  intrusted  to  the 
Educational  Board.  New  regulations  were  made  for  their  management. 
Each  was  required  to  obtain  a  permit  before  going  abroad.  A  distinc- 
tion was  made  between  those  who  were  sent  by  the  Government  and 
those  who  went  at  their  own  option.  All,  however,  were  put  under  the 
care  of  the  Japanese  diplomatic  agents  in  the  countries  where  they 
resided.  Several  students  this  year  were  sent  from  the  Foreign-Lan- 
guage School  at  Tokio.  The  imperial  prince,  Higashi  Fushimi,  and 
other  members  of  the  imperial  family,  were  sent  out  as  students,  ais 
well  as  some  of  the  sons  of  the  higher  nobility. 

In  the  first  month  of  the  fourth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1870),  a  class- 
room was  opened  in  the  Tokio  Foreign-Language  School  for  the  study 
of  the  German  language.  A  Prussian  was  employed  as  a  teacher,  and 
thirty  students  were  admitted  to  study  German.  In  the  second  month 
a  school  was  opened  in  connection  with  the  Department  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  for  learning  the  Chinese  and  European  languages.  This  was 
designed  to  train  young  men  in  these  languages  who  might  serve  the 
department  in  the  necessary  intercourse  with  the  foreign  countries  with 
which  they  were  connected  by  treaty. 

Establishment  of  a  Department  of  Education. — In  the  seventh 
month  of  this  year  (A.  D.  1870),  the  most  important  step  was  taken  in 
the  modification  of  the  educational  machinery  of  Japan.  The  old 
organization,  modeled  after  the  idea  of  the  university  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  which  we  have  denominated  the  Educational  Board,  was 
abolished.  Its  university  functions  had  never  in  reality  been  exer- 
6 


122  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

cised,  and  it  had   only  served  the  purpose  of  a  bureau  of  adminis- 
tration. 

In  connection  with  the  changes  which  at  this  time  were  made  in 
all  the  departments  of  government,  educational  affairs  were  also  as- 
signed to  a  distinct  department,  called  the  Mombusho,  or  Department 
of  Education.  It  had  charge  of  the  general  management  of  all  edu- 
cational matters,  whether  connected  with  the  upper,  middle,  or  lower 
schools.  It  had  power  to  make  and  change  rules  and  regulations 
for  schools  ;  to  open,  close,  divide,  and  unite  them  ;  to  organize  school 
districts  ;  to  take  charge  of  the  erection  of  school-buildings ;  to  engage 
teachers,  and  to  regulate  the  expenses  of  schools.  This  department 
had  also  charge  of  all  affairs  connected  with  medicine  and  medical 
education,  and  of  the  matter  of  licensing  and  regulating  the  publication 
of  books  and  periodicals.  All  the  institutions  of  learning  which  had 
been  established  in  the  capital  and  in  other  cities  were  transferred  to 
this  new  department. 

The  officers  of  this  department  entered  upon  their  work  with  energy 
and  discretion.  At  first  only  unimportant  and  casual  changes  were 
made.  Meanwhile  a  more  comprehensive  scheme  of  national  educa- 
tion was  matured  and  at  a  later  date  was  initiated. 

In  this  same  month  anatomical  lectures  were  begun  by  a  German 
professor  at  the  Tokio  Medical  School.  Other  foreign  professors  were 
subsequently  added,  and  the  instruction  of  a  large  body  of  students  in 
medicine  according  to  the  Western  system  was  fairly  inaugurated. 

The  want  of  proper  text-books  to  enable  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation to  carry  out  its  plans  was  severely  felt.  The  old  text-books  used 
under  the  pure  Japanese  system  were  not  sufficient  to  teach  the  arts 
and  sciences  of  modern  times.  A  Bureau  of  Book  Compilation  was 
therefore  organized  in  the  department,  to  which  were  joined  the  lexi- 
graphic-office  and  the  translating-office  which  had  existed  under  the 
old  Educational  Board.  The  offices  of  translation  which  had  been 
established  in  the  Foreign-Language  School  and  the  Medical  School  of 
Tokio  were  also  consolidated  with  this  bureau.  Men  versed  in  foreign 
languages  and  sciences  were  here  employed  to  compile  and  prepare 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I23 

works   suitable   to    be   used   for  text-books    in    the    schools    of   the 
empire. 

An  Embassy  to  Foreign  Countries, — The  fourth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  p. 
1871)  was  not  marked  by  any  important  changes  in  educational  mat- 
ters. It  was  during  this  year  that  the  embassy  headed  by  Iwakura, 
junior  prime-minister,  was  dispatched  to  America  and  Europe.  One  of 
the  objects  aimed  at  in  this  embassy  was  an  investigation  of  the  educa- 
tional institutions  and  administration  of  these  countries.  One  of  the 
embassadors  was  specially  charged  with  the  duty  of  studying  and  re- 
porting upon  education.  Tanaka  Fujimaro  also  accompanied  the  em- 
bassy as  a  special  commissioner  on  this  subject.  He  was  absent  during 
the  whole  of  the  year  1872,  and  visited  the  leading  nations,  and  made 
an  examination  into  their  educational  systems.  The  results  were  em- 
bodied in  an  extended  report,  and  in  the  code  of  education  which  was 
subsequently  prepared.  In  January,  1872,  measures  were  taken  to  col- 
lect a  museum  of  articles  to  be  sent  to  the  Vienna  International  Ex- 
hibition. The  collection  proved  so  extensive  and  interesting  to  the 
public  that,  after  making  a  selection  to  be  sent  to  Vienna,  the  remainder 
were  kept  open  as  a  public  museum.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
present  extensive  Tokio  Museum.  It  afterward  received  large  acces- 
sions, both  by  further  collections  of  native  articles  and  by  foreign  arti- 
cles obtained  by  purchase  or  exchange  at  Vienna. 

In  the  same  month  press-laws  were  issued  by  the  Department  of 
Education  for  the  regulation  of  the  printing  and  publication  of  books 
and  periodicals.  It  was  thereby  enacted  that,  for  the  publication  of  any 
book,  a  government  license  must  be  obtained  ;  that  the  publication  of 
all  matter  which  impugned  established  laws,  or  was  libelous  or  contrary 
to  sound  morals,  was  prohibited ;  that  the  pirating  of  published  works 
of  other  authors  was  forbidden. 

In  the  second  month  the  first  female  school  was  opened  in  Tokio. 
The  course  of  study  included  the  English  language.  Besides  this,  a 
schedule  of  subjects  was  provided  similar  to  that  in  the  elementary 
schools.  The  teachers  were  in  part  foreign  and  in  part  Japanese  ladies. 

In  the  fifth  month  steps  were  taken  to  organize  a  normal  school  for 


124 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


training  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  empire.  The  want 
of  competent  teachers  who  could  carry  on  the  schools  in  accordance 
with  the  present  requirements  of  education  was  greatly  felt.  The  old 
teachers  had  been  accustomed  to  the  Chinese  methods,  and  were  un- 
skilled in  foreign  science  and  knowledge.  This  normal  school  was  the 
first  step  in  the  work  of  providing  a  better-trained  class  of  teachers.  A 
sufficient  number  of  suitable  candidates  presented  themselves  for  admis- 
sion, and  the  school  was  accordingly  opened.  An  American  teacher, 
familiar  with  the  organization  and  methods  employed  in  such  institu- 
tions, was  engaged  to  introduce  a  proper  system  of  instruction. 

.  Code  of  Education, — The  deliberations  of  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation resulted,  in  the  seventh  month  A.  D.  1872,  in  the  issue  of  an  im- 
portant code  of  education.  It  was  intended  to  include  the  principles 
and  regulations  necessary  for  all  classes  of  schools  in  the  empire.  In 
the  subsequent  years  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  alter  and  amend 
this  code  in  many  particulars,  but  in  the  main  it  has  proved  a  valuable 
and  satisfactory  manual  for  the  administration  of  school  affairs.  The 
following  extract  is  given  from  the  introduction  to  this  important  docu- 
ment : 

"  The  acquirement  of  knowledge  and  the  cultivation  of  talent  are  essential 
to  a  successful  life.  By  education  men  learn  to  acquire  property,  practise 
learned  professions,  perform  public  services,  and  make  themselves  indepen- 
dent of  the  help  of  their  fellow-men.  Schools  are  designed  to  provide  this 
essential  education.  In  their  various  capacities  they  are  intended  to  supply 
to  all  classes  of  men  the  knowledge  necessary  for  a  successful  life.  The  sim- 
ple forms  of  language,  the  methods  of  writing,  the  principles  of  calculation, 
the  highest  knowledge  of  law,  politics,  science  and  arts,  the  preparation  of  the 
officer  for  his  duties,  of  the  farmer  and  merchant  for  their  occupations,  the 
physician  for  his  profession,  all  of  these  it  is  the  proper  function  of  schools  to 
supply.  Poverty  and  failure  in  the  careers  of  life  find  their  chief  cause  in  the 
want  of  education. 

"  Although  schools  have  been  established  for  many  centuries  in  Japan,  yet 
so  far  as  they  have  been  provided  by  government  they  have  been  confined  to 
the  military  retainers  and  to  the  upper  classes.  For  the  lower  classes  of  soci- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I25 

ety,  and  for  women,  learning  was  regarded  as  beyond  their  sphere,  and,  if 
acquired  at  all,  was  of  a  limited  character.  Even  among  the  higher  classes 
the  character  of  education  was  defective.  Under  the  pretext  of  acquiring 
knowledge  for  the  benefit  of  the  state,  much  time  was  spent  in  the  useless 
occupation  of  writing  poetry  and  composing  eleganf  maxims,  instead  of  learn- 
ing what  would  be  for  their  own  benefit  or  that  of  the  state. 

"  Recently  an  improved  educational  system  has  been  formed,  and  the 
methods  of  teaching  remodeled.  It  is  designed  henceforth  that  education 
shall  not  be  confined  to  a  few,  but  shall  be  so  diffused  that  there  may  not  be 
a  village  with  an  ignorant  family,  nor  a  family  with  an  ignorant  member. 
Learning  is  no  longer  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  upper  classes,  but 
is  to  be  equally  the  inheritance  of  nobles  and  gentry,  farmers  and  artisans, 
males  and  females. 

"  For  the  purposes  of  administration  it  is  directed  that  the  whole  empire, 
excepting  the  island  of  Yezo,  which  has  a  distinct  colonial  government,  shall 
be  divided  into  eight  grand-school  districts.  The  two  cities  of  Tokio  and 
Osaka,  and  the  six  provincial  capitals,  Aichi,  Ishikawa,  Hiroshima,  Nagasaki, 
Niigata,  and  Awomori,  have  been  designated  as  the  seats  for  the  establish- 
ment of  colleges,  and  other  important  educational  institutions.  Each  grand- 
school  district  is  to  be  divided  into  thirty-two  middle-school  districts,  in  each 
of  which  a  middle  school  will  be  established.  Each  middle-school  district 
will  be  divided  into  elementary-school  districts,  and  schools  provided  for  each. 
Superintendents  and  inspectors  are  to  be  appointed,  whose  duty  it  will  be  to 
direct  in  regard  to  school-buildings,  the  organization  of  schools,  and  the  man- 
agement of  moneys  appropriated  for  school  purposes." 

Certain  changes  were  found  necessary  in  this  plan  of  school  adminis- 
tration. The  number  of  grand-school  districts  was  reduced  to  seven 
instead  of  eight.  The  number  of  middle-school  districts  has  not  been 
maintained  at  the  designated  figure.  And  in  the  settlement  and  estab- 
lishment of  elementary-school  districts  more  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  natural  boundaries  and  association  of  communities  than  was  origi- 
nally deemed  necessary.  In  the  practical  carrying  out  of  all  the  plans 
there  has  been  no  hesitation  in  departing  from  the  original  schedule 
when  circumstances  required. 


I26  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Schedules  for  Elementary  and  Higher  Schools. — The  department 
issued  a  scheme  for  the  studies  of  the  elementary  schools.  They  were 
to  be  divided  into  two  divisions,  a  junior  division  and  a  senior  division ; 
children  of  both  sexes,  from  six  to  nine  years  of  age,  to  compose  the 
junior  division,  and  those  from  ten  to  thirteen  the  senior  division.  The 
entire  course  was  fixed  at  eight  years.  The  subjects  of  instruction 
were  reading  and  writing  the  Japanese  language,  arithmetic  foreign  and 
Japanese,  geography,  drawing,  the  elements  of  physics,  chemistry,  geom- 
etry, and  history,  together  with  drawing  and  the  explanation  of  com- 
mon things. 

The  middle  schools  were  also  divided  into  junior  and  senior  divisions, 
and  the  course  of  study  continued  through  six  years.  For  entrance,  the 
course  of  the  elementary  schools  was  required  to  have  been  finished. 
Besides  the  subjects  of  study  of  the  elementary  course  which  were  here 
to  be  continued,  the  pupils  were  to  be  also  taught  a  higher  knowledge 
of  the  Japanese  language  together  with  some  foreign  language  and  such 
studies  as  ethics,  political  science,  surveying,  etc. 

In  this  code  of  education  were  also  prescribed  regulations  for  the 
organization  and  management  of  foreign-language  schools,  and  for 
university  and  technical  courses  of  study  to  be  pursued  in  the  higher 
institutions  for  which  provision  was  made.  Rules  for  those  studying  in 
foreign  countries  were  also  laid  down.  The  allowances  for  educational 
purposes  to  the  different  cities  and  provinces  of  the  empire  were  settled. 
These  regulations  and  the  prescribed  schedule  of  studies  have  been  fol- 
lowed with  only  such  modifications  as  the  changing  circumstances  of 
the  country  made  necessary. 

Tokio  Public  Library. — In  the  eighth  month  of  this  year  the  De- 
partment of  Education  opened  a  public  library.  It  was  divided  into 
two  sections.  In  one  were  placed  rare  books,  which  were  carefully 
guarded  and  preserved,  and  in  the  other  common  works  intended  for 
the  use  of  the  public.  At  first  this  library  contained  only  Japanese  and 
Chinese  works,  but  in  the  year  1875  a  large  addition  was  made  of  for- 
eign works.  It  is  now  kept  in  the  old  Temple  of  Confucius,  which  be- 
longed to  the  College  of  Confucius,  established  under  the  shoguns. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I2j 

The  library  is  free  to  the  public,  and  contains  a  valuable  collection  of 
native  and  foreign  books  as  well  as  newspapers  and  other  periodicals. 
In  this  month  also  the  Department  of  Education  was  removed  from  its 
quarters  in  the  old  Confucian  College  to  a  building  near  the  Kanda 
Bridge.  The  building  vacated  was  turned  over  to  the  Normal  School, 
which  had  previously  been  organized,  but  was  now  first  opened  for 
instruction.  An  office  was  also  opened  in  connection  with  the  Normal 
School  for  the  preparation  of  school-books.  Many  of  the  school-charts 
and  elementary  text-books  which  are  now  used  in  the  schools  were  pre- 
pared at  this  office. 

In  the  eleventh  month  it  was  enacted  that  the  old  lunar  calendar, 
which  up  to  this  time  had  been  used  in  Japan,  should  be  abolished,  and 
in  its  place  the  Gregorian  system  should  be  substituted.  Some  confu- 
sion has  arisen  from  this  important  change.  Some  of  the  old  national 
holidays  and  festivals  which,  from  time  immemorial,  had  fallen  upon 
certain  dates  according  to  the  old  calendar,  were  quite  displaced  by  the 
new  calendar.  To  this  day  some  of  these  festivals  are  celebrated  on 
two  different  days,  according  to  the  conservative  or  progressive  views 
of  different  sections. 

At  the  opening  of  the  sixth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1873),  a  government 
hospital  was  opened  in  the  city  of  Tokio.  To  assist  in  defraying  the 
expense  of  this  establishment  the  Department  of  the  Imperial  House- 
hold made  it  a  special  grant  of  ten  thousand  yens,  and  the  imperial 
court  physicians  were  directed  to  give  their  services  to  it  on  their  days 
of  leave. 

In  the  fourth  month  the  eight  grand-school  districts  which  had  been 
established  in  the  code  of  education  were  consolidated  into  seven,  and 
the  number  and  boundaries  of  the  elementary  and  middle  school  dis- 
tricts were  readjusted.  The  proposed  establishment  of  a  college  at 
Ishikawa  Ken  was  abandoned,  and  Miyagi  was  substituted  for  Awa- 
mori  as  the  proposed  site  of  a  college  in  the  sixth  grand-school  dis- 
trict. 

Development  of  the  Institutions  at  Tokio. — It  was  at  this  time  also 
that  a  new  step  in  advance  was  taken  in  the  development  of  the  Foreign- 


I28  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

I 

Language  School  in  Tokio.  A  considerable  number  of  the  pupils  had 
by  this  time  advanced  sufficiently  far  in  their  studies  to  enter  upon  those 
of  a  collegiate  and  technical  character.  It  was,  therefore,  determined 
to  set  off  from  the  Foreign-Language  School  those  students  sufficiently 
advanced  for  this  purpose.  From  this  time,  therefore,  may  be  dated 
the  regular  organization  of  a  foreign  college  in  Japan.  The  students 
still  remaining  in  the  Foreign-Language  School  continued  to  make  the 
study  of  language  and  the  preparatory  branches  of  learning  their  chief 
occupation,  while  those  set  apart  composed  a  newer  organization  under 
a  separate  director  and  with  separate  professors. 

The  Medical  College,  in  like  manner,  was  reorganized  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  advanced  condition  of  its  students.  A  department  was 
organized  for  the  study  of  anatomy  and  other  branches  of  medical 
science,  while  the  students  of  the  preparatory  department  were  engaged 
in  the  study  of  foreign  languages  and  elementary  science. 

A  new  building  had  been  erected  for  the  use  of  the  Kaisei  Gakko,  by 
which  name  the  new  institution  set  off  from  the  Foreign-Language  School 
was  designated.  The  old  buildings  were  now  occupied  entirely  by  the 
classes  of  the  Foreign-Language  School.  The  opening  of  the  new  insti- 
tution was  signalized  by  a  visit  from  the  emperor  in  person  accompanied 
by  a  number  of  the  high  officers  of  the  Government ;  and  a  little  later 
the  empress  also  visited  the  institution,  and  personally  inspected  the 
operations  of  the  different  departments. 

At  this  time,  in  the  Foreign-Language  School,  English,  French,  Ger- 
man, Russian,  and  Chinese,  were  taught.  The  intercourse  of  Japan 
with  the  leading  foreign  nations  made  necessary  the  instruction  of 
young  men  in  these  languages.  In  the  Kaisei  Gakko,  three  foreign  lan- 
guages were  employed,  English,  French,  and  German.  Subsequently, 
however,  the  use  of  one  foreign  language  only  was  deemed  essential  to 
the  economy  and  efficiency  of  the  administration,  and  at  the  present 
time  English  alone  is  employed. 

Additional  Normal  and  Foreign-Language  Schools. — The  reor- 
ganization of  the  elementary  schools  had  been  especially  aimed  at  in 
the  code  of  education  ;  and,  although  the  provincial  governments  and 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I2g 

the  communities  themselves  were  anxious  for  the  improvement  of  their 
schools,  and  contributed  willingly  and  liberally  for  this  purpose,  the 
want  of  competent  teachers  made  it  impossible  to  secure  this  object  at 
once.  To  hasten  the  realization  of  this  object,  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation resolved  to  increase  the  number  of  normal  schools,  and  in  the 
ninth  month  directed  the  establishment  of  one  at  Osaka.  In  the  early 
part  of  the  next  year  they  also  organized  normal  schools  at  the  towns 
of  Aichi,  Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  and  Niigata.  This  completed  the  pro- 
vision of  a  normal  school  for  each  of  the  grand-school  districts.  They 
were  all  regulated  upon  the  same  plan  and  with  the  same  subjects  of 
study  as  the  one  already  successfully  begun  in  Tokio. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1874)  foreign-language  schools 
were  established  in  each  of  the  grand-school  districts,  except  in  the  first 
and  second,  where  they  already  existed.  They  were  located  in  the  same 
towns  where  the  normal  schools  were  situated,  to  wit,  at  Tokio,  Osaka, 
Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  Miyagi,  and  Niigata.  These  foreign-language 
schools,  with  the  exception  of  that  at  Tokio,  were  exclusively  employed 
in  teaching  the  English  language,  so  that  subsequently  they  were  de- 
nominated English-language  schools.  The  institution  at  Tokio  was  in 
the  following  year  divided  into  two  parts,  the  one  called  the  English- 
Language  School,  and  the  other  the  Foreign-Language  School. 

Classification  of  Schools. — The  educational  institutions  had  now 
been  brought  into  the  condition  in  which  they  have  since  continued. 
They  consisted  of  three  classes:  i.  Those  which  were  established  at 
the  government  expense,  and  maintained  by  a  yearly  allowance  granted 
by  the  Department  of  Education,  such  as  the  Kaisei  Gakko  and  Medical 
College  in  Tokio,  the  foreign -language  schools  and  the  normal  schools 
in  each  of  the  grand-school  districts.  2.  Those  which  were  built 
at  the  expense  of  the  people,  and  were  supported  by  the  people,  but 
received  from  the  Department  of  Education  a  certain  sum  to  assist  in 
defraying  their  current  expenses.  These  schools  were  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  local  governments,  but  were  visited  and  inspected  by  the 
agents  of  the  department.  3.  Private  schools,  which  were  estab- 
lished by  private  individuals  at  their  own  expense.  They  were  only 


130 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


required  to  report  their  regulations  to  the  local  government,  and  obtain 
a  license. 

In  this  year  also  the  Department  of  Education  began  the  publica- 
tion of  a  semi-monthly  bulletin,  in  which  useful  information  on  educa- 
tional affairs  and  instructive  discourses  in  regard  to  schools  and  sanitary 
matters  were  printed  for  the  benefit  of  the  public. 

First  Report  presented  to  the  Emperor. — In  the  first  month  of  the 
eighth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1875),  on  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on  which 
the  Department  of  Education  was  organized,  Tanaka  Fujimaro,  the 
vice-minister,  presented  the  following  address  to  the  emperor  : 

"  Your  humble  servant  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  hold  his  office  at  a  fa- 
vorable time  when  civilization  is  beginning  to  be  diffused,  and  the  people  are 
gradually  becoming  cultivated.  Although  it  is  my  earnest  desire  to  advance 
the  affairs  of  this  department,  still  it  is  not  long  since  it  was  organized,  and  its 
operations  are  comparatively  recent.  In  regard  to  sanitary  matters  which  are 
at  present  under  its  direction  its  imperfection  is  apparent.  •  But,  in  regard  to 
its  educational  duties,  it  is  the  humble  opinion  of  your  servant  that  it  has  in 
some  degree  established  order  and  system.  I  am,  therefore,  happy  respect- 
fully to  present  to  your  majesty  the  first  annual  report  of  this  department.  In 
this  report  for  the  sixth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1874)  are  shown  the  internal 
arrangements  of  the  department,  together  with  the  work  it  has  accomplished, 
and  the  condition  of  the  schools  and  school-districts  regularly  classified  under 
appropriate  heads.  For  the  purpose  of  easy  reference,  an  abridgment  is 
attached.  Owing  to  the  necessity  of  respecting  local  customs,  and  to  the 
incompleteness  of  the  reports  received  from  the  cities  and  provinces,  some 
discrepancies  will  be  discovered.  It  is  the  opinion  of  your  humble  servant 
that  the  time  when  complete  and  correct  reports  may  be  obtained,  and  when 
such  reports  shall  show  that  every  family  is  educated  and  every  individual  is 
in  good  health,  can  only  be  reached  by  gradual  and  slow  approximations. 
Your  humble  servant,  therefore,  respectfully  presents  this  report,  such  as  it  is, 
and  b"egs  your  majesty's  gracious  acceptance  and  examination  of  the  same." 

Female  Normal  School. — The  most  important  event  in  educational 
matters  of  the  year  1875  was  tne  establishment  of  a  female  normal 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !3! 

school.  It  is  designed  to  train  female  teachers  especially  for  the  work 
of  teaching  in  the  elementary  schools.  The  empress  made  a  generous 
grant  of  five  thousand  yens  toward  this  object.  The  building  was 
completed  in  due  time,  and  in  the  tenth  month  it  was  opened  with 
appropriate  ceremonies  in  the  presence  of  the  empress. 

The  Bureaus  of  Sanitary  Affairs  and  of  Press  Regulations  were 
during  the  year  transferred  from  the  Department  of  Education  to  the 
Department  of  Home  Affairs,  under  which  they  are  now  managed. 


I32  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


CHAPTER   V. 
JAPANESE  LANGUAGE  AND   LEARNING. 

Origin  of  Japanese  Written  Characters. — In  the  earliest  times 
the  Japanese  language  had  no  written  characters.  The  opinion  enter- 
tained by  some,  that  writing  was  known  at  the  remotest  times,  has 
sprung  from  the  belief  that "  Hifuma,"  "  Anaichi,"  and  "  Hozuma  "  (mere 
forgeries  of  literary  impostors),  are  really  of  ancient  origin.  In  "  Kogo- 
shui,"  a  collection  of  ancient  traditions,  Imube  Hironari,  its  author,  says, 
"  In  the  remotest  periods  there  were  no  written  characters."  This  well- 
known  statement  is  most  worthy  of  belief;  for  the  author  was  a  member 
of  a  family  that  during  successive  reigns  was  distinguished  for  talent 
and  learning.  He  of  all  men  should  have  known  whether  any  characters 
had  ever  existed  previous  to  those  now  in  use  ;  and,  even  supposing  that 
such  characters  had  once  existed,  whether  they  had  been  afterward  lost. 
There  is  no  doubt  that,  in  the  remotest  periods,  events  were  transmitted 
from  mouth  to  mouth,  without  being  reduced  to  writing,  as  is  seen  in 
the  case  of  a  history  of  Japan  in  three  volumes,  by  Hiyetano  Are,  the 
contents  of  which,  it  appears,  were  recited  and  learned  by  heart  before 
being  reduced  to  writing.  It  is  true  that  even  before  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond century  (European)  many  foreigners  had  come  over  to  Japan  from 
the  continent ;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the  introduction  of  Chinese 
or  other  characters  at  that  early  period.  After  the  military  expedition 
to  Shinra,  a  part  of  Corea,  the  intercourse  between  that  country  and 
ours  became  more  frequent — a -circumstance  which  furnished  reason  to 
believe  that  some  foreign  characters  were  then  introduced  into  the 
country  ;  but  we  have  no  accounts  of  their  having  been  then  learned  or 
used  by  the  Japanese. 

In  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  Emperor  Ojin's  reign  (A.  D.  284),  the 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  t^ 

f.ing  of  Kuclara,  a  part  of  Corea,  sent  a  person  called  Ajiki  to  Japan, 
'who  was  a  good  Confucian  scholar.  By  this  man  the  crown-prince 
Uji  Wakairatsuko  was  taught  to  read  the  books  of  the  sage.  This  is 
the  first  account  we  have  of  the  introduction  of  Confucian  books  into 
our  country.  It  appears  that  from  that  time  sufficient  progress  was 
made  in  the  study  of  letters  to  make  epistolary  correspondence  practi- 
cable ;  but  the  writing  of  anything  like  Chinese  composition  was  out 
of  the  question  as  yet.  In  "  Kojiki,"  a  history  of  Japan,  and  "Manyo- 
shu,"  a  collection  of  Japanese  poetry,  Chinese  characters  were  in- 
deed used,  but  only  as  phonetics  of  the  Japanese  sounds.  As  the 
square  and  unabbreviated  form  of  the  Chinese  characters,  however, 
consisted  of  so  great  a  number  of  strokes  as  to  occasion  much  perplex- 
ity, contractions  and  abbreviations  were  made  ;  and  so,  after  many  and 
probably  gradual  changes,  the  characters  assumed  a  permanent  form 
called  Hirakana,  more  or  less  different  from  the  original.  In  some 
other  characters,  a  part  only  of  the  original  was  retained,  leaving  out 
the  more  complicated  part  of  the  original,  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
in  writing.  These  abbreviated  characters,  being  very  simple,  soon  as- 
sumed a  permanent  form.  Such  was  the  origin  of  Katakana,  or  side- 
letters. 

The  popular  opinion  is,  that  the  Hirakana,  or  plain  letters,  were  in- 
vented by  Kukai,  while  the  Katakana,  or  side-letters,  originated  with 
Kibinomabi ;  but  there  is  no  sufficient  proof  in  support  of  this  opinion, 
and  it  probably- arose -from  the  natural  tendency  to  attribute  to  particu- 
lar individuals  what  was  the  result  of  general  causes. 

The  table  which  stands  below  represents  the  syllabic  sounds  of  the 
Japanese  language,  written  in  Katakana.  By  the  combination  of  these, 
and  a  supplementary  character  corresponding  to  n,  always  placed  at 
the  end  of  a  syllable,  all  the  words  of  the  Japanese  language  may  be 
represented : 


134 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 
THE  JAPANESE  SYLLABARY.1 


7 


ya 


ha 


ta 


ka 


r 


hi 


tsi 


shi 


ki 


yu 


fu 


tsu 


ku 


u 


IX 

re 


•£• 


ye 


he 


7 

te 


4: 


ke 


jr. 

e 


wo 


T? 

ro 


3 

yo 


y 


ho 


to 


Z7 
ko 


The  origin  of  this  syllabary  is  unknown,  but  we  think  we  are  justified 
in  supposing  that  it  dated  from  the  return  of  Kukai,  the  Buddhist 
priest,  from  China,  and  the  introduction  of  Sanskrit  by  him.  For, 
though*  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  on  this  point,  yet  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  syllables  adopted  by  the  best  authorities  is  the  order 
corresponding  to  the  vowel-sounds  (a,  /',  u,  e,  d)  ;  and  this  order  is  de- 
rived from  the  five  vowel-sounds  in  the  ancient  Hindostani  writing — 
a  feature  which  we  do  not  find  to  exist  in  the  syllabaries  of  any  other 
language.  When  Kukai  went  over  to  China,  he  was  instructed  by  Fu- 
kuzanzo  in  the  ancient  Hindostani  writing  and  the  sounds  of  the  Hin- 
dostani characters.  These  branches  of  learning  were  entirely  neg- 

1  In  giving  the  equivalent  sounds  in  Roman  characters,  we  have  followed  the  system  now 
adopted  by  most  Anglo-Japanese  scholars.  The  sounds  of  the  consonants  are  the  same  as 
in  English,  and  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  the  same  as  in  Italian.  The  table  is  to  be  read  in 
vertical  columns,  beginning  at  the  right  hand. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !35 

lected  in  China  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  Gen  dynasty  ;  but  with 
us,  especially  by  the  numerous  Shingon  sect,  which  was  founded  by 
Kukai,  they  continued  to  be  extensively  and  attentively  cultivated.  It 
is,  therefore,  tolerably  certain  that  Buddhist  priests  composed  the  table 
of  fifty  syllables.  What  the  gamut  is  to  vocal  harmony,  this  table  is  to 
prosody  and  to  the  art  of  combining  initial  and  final  sounds  by  means 
of  characters.  But,  there  being  but  forty-seven  syllables  in  our  lan- 
guage, the  table  contains  a  few  supernumerary  ones.  There  are  in 
the  table,  too,  slight  inconsistencies ;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  syllables  is  clear  and  the  sounds  are  well  harmonized.  On 
account  of  its  simplicity  and  convenience,  the  table  is  now  very  gener- 
ally used  by  scholars. 

But,  besides  the  above  usual  arrangement  of  the  syllabary,  other 
arrangements  have  been  used :  for  instance,  we  also  have  a,  e,  o,  u,  i, 
or,  u,  o,  t,  e,  a,  instead  of  a,  z,  u,  e,  o,  and,  instead  of  the  common  lat- 
eral order,  these  two  modified  systems  respectively  follow  the  order  of 
a,  wa,  ya,  na,  ta,  ra,  ha,  ma,  ka,  sa,  and  a,  ra,  ma,  iva,  ka,  sa,  ta, 
na,  ha,  ya,  and  these  kana  are  therefore  placed  at  the  head  of  the  ten 
columns  of  syllables  in  the  tables,  to  indicate  the  modified  lateral 
order  of  the  columns  in  those  peculiar  arrangements. 

Some  recent  writers  say  that  this  table  of  syllables  was  invented 
by  sages  of  the  remotest  ages  for  the  use  of  the  people,  or  that  it  was 
made  by  the  sacred  kings  in  ancient  Hindostan ;  but  both  these 
statements  are  forced  inferences  drawn  from  the  fact  that  it  is  now  ex- 
tensively used.  The  nicely-harmonized  system  of  the  syllabary,  as  it 
stands  in  the  table  of  fifty  sounds,  appears  to  be  of  divine  origin. 
In  the  foregoing  table  of  the  Japanese  syllabary,  we  have  fifty  syl- 
lables arranged  in  regular  order;  but  our  language  has^in  reality  no 
more  than  forty-seven.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  column^,  yt,  yu, 
ye,  yo,  the  characters  for  yi  and/<?  do  not  differ  from  those  for  /and 
e  ;  and  in  that  of  iva,  ivi,  -wu,  we,  wo,  the  character  for  tvu  is  the  same 
as  that  for  u. 

There  is  another  arrangement  of  the  Japanese  syllabary  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  the  priest  Kobodaishi,  who  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 


I36  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

brated  Japanese  scholars.  It  was  contrived  for  the  purpose  of  facilitat- 
jngjthe  memorizing  of  the  syllabary.  Being  divided  into  words  the 
whole  composes  the  following  celebrated  stanza  : 

I-ro-ha   ni-ho-he-to   chi-ri-nu-ru-wo 

Wa-ga-yo   ta-re-so   tsu-ne-ra-n 
Wi-no-o-ku   ya-ma  ke-fu-ko-ye-te 

A-sa-ki   yu-me   mi-shi  e-hi-se-su. 

From  the  first  three  letters  in  this  arrangement  the  syllabary  is  com- 
monly called  the  I-ro-ha,  just  as  the  English  word  alphabet  has  been 
derived  from  the  first  two  Greek  letters. 

Written  Characters  of  the  Legendary  Age. — We  have  said  above 
that  the  so-called  characters  of  the  legendary  age  were  not  made  by 
the  sages  of  old.  But  the  opinion  entertained  by  some  writers,  that 
they  were  derived  from  the  Corean  Rito  (a  system  of  writing),  is  not 
supported  by  facts.  According  to  our  opinion,  these  characters  are 
identical  with  those  known  as  "  new  characters,"  and  were  extant  at 
our  Board  of  Books  and  Writings  during  the  middle  ages. 

In  the  eleventh  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Temmu  (A.  D.  683) 
these  new  characters  were  made  by  Sakaibe-no-Muraji  Iwasumi  by 
imperial  command ;  but  they  were  never  generally  used  in  Japan. 
Shimbun  was  King  of  Shinra  (part  of  Corea),  and,  an  irregular  inter- 
course having  sprung  up  with  that  country,  I  am  convinced  that  these 
characters  were  then  introduced  into  Corea,  for  at  the  present  time  they 
are  called  vulgar  characters  by  the  Coreans,  and  are  in  general  use  with 
them.  The  composition  of  the  table  has  by  them  been  attributed  to 
Setsuso,  a  distinguished  scholar  of  that  early  time. 

But,  while  we  have  the  square  and  unabbreviated,  as  well  as  the 
cursive  form  of  these  characters,  they  have  only  the  former  without  the 
latter,  which  latter  form  I  think  was  never  introduced  into  Corea.  Of 
both  forms  of  characters,  some  specimens  are  extant  in  the  old  Shinto 
temples  of  our  country.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
use  of  the  Chinese  characters  did  not  spread  so  early  and  so  exten- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !37 

sively  in  the  country  as  it  did  in  the  cities  and  towns.  The  "  new 
characters  "  were  known  and  used  until  the  middle  ages,  and  were 
called  Satsujin  and  Hijin  characters  (i.  e.,  characters  used  by  the  people 
of  Satsuma,  and  Hizen,  and  Higo). 

Such  is  our  opinion  concerning  those  characters  which  Hirata  Atsu- 
tane,  the  most  distinguished  scholar  of  recent  times,  held  to  be  the  old- 
est Japanese  characters,  and  which  Ban  Nobutomo  pronounced  to  be 
purely  Corean.  These  two  opinions,  however,  are  not  free  from  doubt, 
and  I  therefore  set  forth  my  opinion,  committing  the  question  to  the 
future  examination  of  others. 

Pure  Japanese  Characters. — As  said  above,  in  the  remotest  periods 
of  our  country,  we  had  no  written  characters  ;  but,  in  later  times,  sev- 
eral new  characters  have  been  invented  here.  The  characters  have 
forms  similar  to  the  Chinese  ;  but  are  not  contained  in  Chinese  diction- 
aries, because  they  are  of  purely  Japanese  origin. 

There  are  also  some  Chinese  characters  which  have  been  gener- 
ally used  here,  but,  having  become  extinct  in  China,  are  said  by  some 
to  be  of  Japanese  origin.  Such  characters  have  been  attributed  to  Jap- 
anese invention  erroneously,  on  account  of  their  absence  in  Chinese  dic- 
tionaries. Besides  the  above,  some  Chinese  characters  have  been  natu- 
ralized here  in  a  corrupt  form,  and  have  become  Japanese.  A  few  dic- 
tionaries which  contain  characters  of  the  above  classes  are  still  extant : 

Wamiyorui-jusho,  a  dictionary,  composed  about  A.  D.  900. 

Ruiju-meigi-sho,  a  dictionary,  composed  about  A.  D.  900. 

Shin-sen-jikio,  a  dictionary,  composed  about  A.  D.  900. 

Shin-sen-sarugakuki,  a  work  compiled  about  A.  D.  1080. 

Iroha-jiruisho,  a  work  written  about  A.  D.  1500. 

Wagiyokuhen,  a  work  written  about  the  same  time. 

Unpo-iroha-sho,  a  work  written  about  the  same  time. 

Teikinorai,  a  work  written  about  A.  D.  1320. 

Isei-teikin,  a  work  written  A.  D.  1330. 

Sekiso-orai,  a  work  written  A.  D.  1450. 

Shinsen-ruiju-orai,  a  work  written  about  A.  D.  1 500. 

Kagaku-shu.  a  work  written  about  the  same  time. 


I38  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Setsuyo-shu,  of  which  an  edition,  called  Soji,  was  published  about 
A.  D.  1500,  and  another,  called  Yekirin,  was  published  about  A.  D.  1600. 

The  characters  in  question  mentioned  in  the  above  works  are  too 
numerous  to  be  repeated  here. 

The  Table  of  Marks. — In  order  to  render  Chinese  writing  intel- 
ligible to  a  Japanese  reader,  without  making  a  complete  translation, 
certain  marks  are  fixed  to  the  Chinese  text,  to  indicate  the  order  in 
which  the  Chinese  characters  must  be  read  to  suit  the  Japanese  idiom. 
Some  particles  too  are  inserted  at  the  side  of  the  Chinese  characters 
to  show  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other.  These  supplementary 
elements  have  collectively  been  called  "  The  Tables  of  Marks."  The 
use  of  these  tables  was  well  defined  previous  to  the  middle  ages,  and 
was  designed  to  secure  the  correct  rendering  of  Chinese  texts.  But  in 
modern  times  the  free  and  arbitrary  use  of  those  marks  has  frequently 
given  rise  to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  sense  of  the  composition  to 
which  they  were  affixed ;  and,  what  is  still  worse,  sometimes  serious 
errors  were  created,  by  attributing  ideas  to  an  author  which  he  had 
neither  entertained  nor  expressed.  We  quote  from  Dr.  Hepburn's  arti- 
cle on  "The  Japanese  Language,"  in  Appletons'  "American  Cyclo- 
paedia," his  statement  in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  Chinese  characters  in 
Japanese  literature  :  "  There  are  three  general  styles  of  literary  compo- 
sition in  use.  One  is  pure  Chinese,  in  which  none  but  Chinese  charac- 
ters are  employed,  and  the  grammatical  construction  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Chinese  idiom.  Frequently,  in  this  style,  marks  or  signs  are 
used  along  the  line  of  the  characters  to  designate  the  order  in  which 
they  should  be  read  in  translating  the  sentences  into  the  Japanese  lan- 
guage, or  to  suit  the  native  idiom.  Another,  and  the  most  common,  is 
that  in  which  the  Chinese  characters  are  used  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, mixed  with  native  words  written  with  their  own  letters,  and  where 
the  structure  and  idiom  are  purely  Japanese.  Most  of  the  literature 
intended  for  the  unlearned  and  common  reader  is  in  this  form.  There 
is  still  another,  written  almost  entirely  in  the  native  character,  with 
little  or  no  admixture  of  Chinese,  intended  for  the  use  of  women  and 
children  and  uneducated  persons." 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !39 

COMPOSITION. 

In  very  ancient  times,  as  already  related,  writing  was  unknown,  and 
oral  language  only  existed.  From  such  records  as  are  left  of  this  lan- 
guage, we  know  that  its  form  was  graceful,  its  sound  harmonious,  and 
its  style  rich  in  ornament ;  but,  owing  to  the  non-existence  of  letters  to 
preserve  it,  only  a  very  small  portion  has  descended  to  our  times,  as  for 
instance,  in  the  Koden  (ancient  records),  Notto  (Shinto  prayers),  etc. 
And  we  owe  the  preservation  of  even  this  small  amount  to  the  fact  that 
the  "  Koden  "  were  orally  taught  from  generation  to  generation,  and 
the  "  Notto  "  were  particular  forms  of  prayer  used  from  age  to  age  on 
religious  festivals.  In  such  works  as  "  Kojiki,"  "  Fudoki,"  etc.,  we 
find  analogical  sentences  joined  together  in  couplets,  which  give  us  some 
idea  of  the  style  of  this  ancient  language. 

When  the  emperor  issued  proclamations  upon  any  important  state 
business,  they  were  called  Sen-miyo.  They  were  written  in  large  char- 
acters ;  grammatical  inflections,  etc.,  being  expressed  by  the  aid  of  small 
auxiliary  characters  inserted  between  the  larger  ones.  It  is  only  these 
Sen-miyo  and  Notto  that  are  exclusively  or  purely  Japanese.  Even  in 
modern  times  this  style  is  used  in  religious  festivals,  the  naming  of  an 
heir  to  the  crown,  the  imperial  marriage,  the  changing  of  the  year's 
name,  the  appointing  of  ministers,  etc.  From  the  close  of  the  sixth 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  Chinese  compositions  began  to  be  studied, 
and,  as  in  all  things  Chinese  customs  were  respected,  the  ordinary  writ- 
ing became  entirely  Chinese  ;  on  this  account,  even  in  the  above-men- 
tioned Sen-miyo,  a  few  Chinese  words  found  entrance.  In  this  way  the 
documents  issued  by  the  Government  gradually  came  to  be  written  in 
Chinese.  From  about  A.  D.  900,  students  ceased  to  go  to  China  to 
study,  and.  communication  with  that  country  becoming  infrequent,  Chi- 
nese grammar  became  corrupted,  and  the  result  was  that  a  hybrid  style 
of  composition  was  created  by  this  confusion.  This  is  the  style  now 
used  by  the  Government  in  its  documents,  and  by  the  people  in  their 
daily  correspondence.  In  this  style  the  characters  On  and  Soro  are 
indiscriminately  used  to  express  respect.  Although  this  is  the  style 
currently  used,  there  is  another  style  which  sprung  from  the  most 


140 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


ancient  forms,  and  became  a  style  distinct  by  itself.  It  had  its  origin  in 
the  Japanese  middle  ages,  at  about  the  period  of  Yengi  (A.  D.  901-922). 
The  works  "  Tosa  Nikki,"  etc.,  by  Kino  Tsurayuki,  were  written  in  this 
style.  Before  the  issue  of  this  work,  indeed,  the  works  "  Isemono- 
gatari,"  "  Taki-torimono-gatari,"  etc.,  existed  ;  but  the  "  Tosa  Nikki"  is 
the  oldest  work  concerning  whose  authorship  no  doubt  exists.  The 
styles  Sho-soku-bun  (Japanese  epistolary  style),  Wakanojo  (style  for  in- 
troductions to  Japanese  practical  works),  Nikki  and  Kiko  (diaries  and 
travels),  and  Monogatari  (light  literature),  sprung  out  of  the  above- 
mentioned  mediaeval  style. 

Nikki  and  Kiko  Style. — Between  this  style  ami  the  Monogatari 
style  there  exists  but  little  difference.  The  use  of  honorific  terms,  as  in 
the  Sho-soku-bun,  did  not  prevail  when  this  style  was  in  vogue.  It  is 
noted  for  its  plainness  and  naivett ;  in  fact,  it  represents  things  as  they 
are. .  At  least,  these  were  its  peculiarities  from  A.  D.  900  to  A.  D.  1000, 
after  which,  however,  it  gradually  was  encumbered  with  ornaments,  so 
that  at  length  it  was  merged  in  the  Monogatari  style. 

Monogatari  Style. — Its  simplest  form  is  seen  in  the  "  Take-tori  Mo- 
nogatari," and  the  height  of  its  elegance  appears  in  the  "  Genji  Monoga- 
tari. The  former  is  of  about  A.  D.  900,  the  latter  of  about  A.  D.  1000 ; 
which  accounts  for  the  increased  elegance  of  this  style. 

Waka-no-jo  Style. — There  was  a  peculiar  style  of  composition  used 
for  precursive  remarks  to  poetical  stanzas  ;  this  style  was  also  employed 
in  writing  the  epilogistic  remarks  to  a  verse.  These  remarks  often 
served  the  double  purpose  of  sequel  to  the  stanza  it  followed,  and  of 
preface  to  the  one  it  preceded.  This  style  belonged  to  the  Waka-no-jo. 

It  was  also  used  in  writing  short  introductions  to  poetical  works ; 
and  again  it  was  used  when  people  assembled  together  for  the  pur- 
pose of  composing  verses.  These  verses,  when  collected,  were  pre- 
ceded by  an  introduction  explanatory  of  the  special  occasion  of  such 
assembly,  written  in  this  style,  with  richly-ornamental  flourishes.  This 
highly-ornamented  style  is  derived  from  that  used  in  the  introduc- 
tions to  Chinese  poetical  works,  and  prevailed  in  the  later  mediaeval 
times,  about  A.  D.  loco ;  but  it  is  only  a  modified  form  of  Chinese  com- 
position, with  mere  addition  of  rhetorical  flourishes. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !4I 

Metrical  Composition. — Poetry  has  existed  from  the  most  ancient 
times,  and,  as  it  was  handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  by 
word  of  mouth,  even  now  some  of  the  oldest  poetry  is  extant.  Poetry 
or  song  is  generally  understood  to  be  delivered  in  audible  intoned 
cadence ;  but,  since  the  middle  ages  (Japanese),  poetry  has  been  divided 
into  two  kinds,  the  one  being  simply  read,  while  the  other  kind  is  sung. 
The  latter  kind  consisted  of  Kagura,  Saibaraku,  Imaiyo,  Yo-kiyoku,  etc., 
while  the  former  developed  into  a  distinct  subject  of  literary  art.  There 
were  two  kinds  of  verse,  one  of  five  syllables  and  one  of  seven  syllables. 
Verses,  however,  of  six  and  eight  syllables  were  also  composed.  Al- 
though there  were  no  fixed  rules  for  the  length  of  the  stanzas,  still  in 
more  modern  times  the  usual  rule  was  that  they  should  be  of  thirty- 
one  syllables.  But  as  yet  poetry  had  not  developed  into  a  distinct  art. 
It  first  became  so  during  the  period  of  Choho  (A.  D.  999-1003),  when  the 
Buddhist  priest  No-in  became  the  pupil  of  Fujiwara  Nagato,  and  Fuji- 
wara  Toshinari  became  the  pupil  of  Fujiwara  Mototoshi.  With  these, 
during  the  later  mediaeval  age,  originated  the  peculiar  style  of  Nijo,  Bei- 
zen,  and  Asukai  (these  are  family  names),  and  these  styles  were  followed 
by  everybody.  But  in  later  ages,  these  styles  having  been  found  to  be 
erroneous,  the  Buddhist  priests  Keichiu,  Kamo  Mabuchi,  etc.,  purified 
them,  and  remodeled  them  so  as  to  be  conformable  to  the  ancient  style. 
Fujitani  Nariakira,  of  Kioto,  classified  the  various  styles  of  poetry  ac- 
cording to  six  periods,  which  he  called  I.  Josei  (ancient  period)  ;  2.  Chiu- 
ko  (early  mediaeval  period) ;  3.  Nakagoro  (mediaeval  period)  ;  4.  Kinko 
(later  mediaeval  period)  ;  5.  Kinsei  (modern  period) ;  6.  Konsei  (pres- 
ent period).  Examples  of  the  styles  of  these  periods  are  here  appended  : 

I.  JOSEI  (Ancient  Period). 

Ya-ku-mo-ta-tsu (5) 

I-dsu-mo  ya-ye  ga-ki (7) 

Tsu-ma-go-mi  ni (5) 

Ya-ye  ga-ki  tsu-ku-ru (?) 

So-no  ya-ye  ga-ki  wo (?) 

By  Su-sa  no-no  mi-ko-to. 


I42  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Ta-ta  na-me-te (5) 

I-na-sa  no-ya-ma-no (7) 

Ko-no  ma  yo  mo (5) 

I-yu-ki  ma-mo-rahi (7) 

Ta-ta-ka-he-ba (5) 

Wa-re  ha-ya  we-nu (6) 

Shi-ma-tsu  do-ri (5) 

U-ka-hi  ga  to  mo (6) 

I-ma-su  ke  ni  ko-ne (7) 

By  Jimmu  Tenno. 

II.  CHIUKO  (Early  Mediaeval  Period). 

The  style  of  this  period  first  came  into  vogue  about  A.  D.  850,  and 
was  at  its  height  about  A.  D.  900. 

EXAMPLES  OF   ITS   EARLIER  AGE. 

I-to  to  si-ku (5) 

Su-gi-yu-ku  ka-ta  no (7) 

Ko-hi-si-ki  ni (5) 

U-ra-ya-ma  si-ku-mo (7) 

Ka-he-ru  na-mi-ka-na (7) 

It  flourished  most  during  the  periods  Yengi  (A.  D.  901-922)  and  Ten- 
riyaku  (A.  D.  947-956).  There  being  eminent  poets  at  this  time,  poeti- 
cal assemblies  were  held  even  at  the  imperial  court ;  and,  this  art  being 
generally  cultivated,  the  style  was  extremely  good. 

Sa-ku-ra  ba-na (5)     . 

Sa-ki  ni  ke-ra-si  na (7) 

A-si-bi-ki  no (5) 

Ya-ma-no  ka-hi  ya-ri (7) 

Mi-yu-ru  si-ra-ku-mo (7) 


To-si-fu-re-ba (5) 

Ko-si-no  si-ra  ya-ma (7) 

O-yi  ni  ke-ri (5) 

O  ho-ku  no  to-si  no (7) 

Yu-ki  tsu-mo-ri  fsu-tsu (7) 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !43 

III.  AND  IV.  CHIUSEI  (Mediaeval  Period). 

This  period  is  subdivided  into  Nakagoro  and  Kinko  (mediaeval  and 
later  mediaeval  periods).  The  former  is  distinguished  for  the  solidity, 
the  latter  for  the  floridness  and  elegance  of  its  style.  This  latter  style 
came  into  vogue  about  A.  D.  noo. 

EXAMPLES  OF  STYLE  OF  NAKAGORO. 

Ha-ra-sa  me  ni (s) 

Nu-re-te  ta  dzu-nem (?) 

Ya-ma  za-ku-ra (s) 

Ku-mo  no  ka  he  si  no (?) 

A-ra-si  mo  zo  fu-ku (7) 

EXAMPLES  OF  THE  STYLE  OF   KINKO. 

Yo  no  na-ka  ha (s) 

Wa-ga  mi  ni  so-he-ru (?) 

Ka-ge  na-re  ya (s) 

O-mo-hi  su-tsu-re-do (?) 

Ha-na-re-za-ri  ke-ri (?) 


Ta-dzu-ne  ki-te (s) 

Ila-na-ni  ku-ra-se-ru (?) 

Ko-no  ma  yo-ri ($) 

Ma-tsu  to-si  mo  na-ki (7) 

Ya-ma  no  ha  no  tsu-ki (?) 


Fu-ru  sa-to  ni (5) 

Ki-ki  si  a-ra-si  no (?) 

Ko-\ve  mo  ni  zo (S) 

Wa-su-re-ne  hi-to  wo '. (?) 

Sa-ya  no  na-ka-ya-ma (?) 


144  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

V.  KINSEI  (Modern  Period). 

This  also  is  subdivided  into  two  periods  ;  the  first  flourished  before 
the  period  Bun-po  (A.  D.  1317-1318),  and  the  other  about  the  period 
Yekiyo  (A.  D.  1429-1440.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Fu-ke  nu-re-ba (5) 

U-ra  mira  to  da  ni (7) 

O-mo-fu  ma-ni (5) 

Ko-nu-yo  si-ra-ru-ru (7) 

To-ri  no  ko-we  ka-na (7) 

Although  in  this  we  perceive  a  decline  of  force  and  power,  still  in 
elegance  and  grace  great  improvements  are  visible. 

VI.  KONSEI  (Present  Period.) 

Although  the  best  pieces  of  this  period  are  in  imitation  of  the  Kin- 
sei,  still  they  have  peculiarities  of  their  own  which  entitle  them  to  a 
separate  classification.  The  compositions  of  about  A.  D.  1500  almost 
all  belong  to  this  period.  About  A.  D.  1700  the  ancient  style  was  re- 
vived ;  the  poetry  after  this  date,  therefore,  resembles  that  of  ancient 

times. 

EXAMPLES. 

Se-ki  no  na-no (5) 

Ka-su-mi  mo  tsu-ra  si (7) 

Ka-he-ri  mi-ru (5) 

Ki-no-hu-no  so-ra  mo (7) 

Ke-hu-ha  he-da-te-te (7) 

Chinese  Composition  (Kamburi). — The  introduction  of  Chinese  com- 
position into  Japan  took  place  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ojin 
(A.  D.  270-312)  ;  but  what  the  style  of  this  composition  was  at  this  age 
it  is  impossible  to  say.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress 
Suiko  (A.  D.  596),  at  Dogo,  in  the  province  of  lyo,  a  stone  monument 
was  erected,  and,  although  this  monument  no  longer  exists,  still  a  copy 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !45 

of  the  inscription  which  was  engraved  upon  it  is  preserved  in  the 
work  "Shaku  Nihonki."  Thirty-one  years  after  this,  an  image  of 
Buddha  was  made,  upon  the  back  of  which  an  inscription  was  engraved  ; 
and,  although  this  idol  yet  exists  in  the  temple  of  Hori-uji  of  Yamato, 
still,  owing  to  the  Japanese  not  yet  having  obtained  perfection  in  Chi- 
nese composition,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  inscription  has  been  par- 
tially effaced  by  time,  there  are  portions  of  it  which  it  is  impossible  to 
read. 

About  eighty  or  ninety  years  later,  Futo  Yasumaro  presented  to 
the  emperor  the  work  "  Kojiki "  (Japanese  ancient  history),  and  he  pref- 
aced it  with  an  address  to  the  emperor  composed  in  pure  Chinese, 
which  was  very  different  from  the  two  inscriptions  mentioned  above. 
After  this,  Chinese  came  over  to  Japan,  and  Japanese  students  went  to 
China.  For  a  time  Chinese  composition  was  extensively  used ;  but 
afterward,  since  about  A.  D.  900,  intercourse  with  China  ceased,  and 
no  more  students  went  to  that  country,  so  that  finally  a  peculiar  Japanese 
style  of  Chinese  composition  arose,  in  which  the  characters  were  not 
read  in  the  same  order  as  they  were  written.  Those  coming  first  in 
order  when  writing  a  sentence  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence in  reading  ;  the  characters  forming  no  complete  meaning  if  read 
as  they  were  written.  This  hybrid  style  is  in  use  at  the  present  time 
for  epistolary  correspondence  and  for  government  documents. 

In  ancient  times,  neither  literary  studies  nor  books  for  imparting 
knowledge  existed  in  this  country.  It  was  only  subsequent  to  the  middle 
ages  that  the  study  of  history  and  of  ancient  customs  was  commenced, 
and  this  was  confined  to  the  members  of  the  imperial  court  only,  the 
mass  of  the  people  not  occupying  themselves  with  these  matters,  nor  with 
the  imperial  records  on  local  customs  and  usages  which  were  composed 
about  this  time.  In  the  eighth  month  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Richiu  (A.  D.  403),  offices  were  first  established  in  the 
provinces  for  the  purpose  of  recording  local  events,  public  opinions,  etc., 
but  before  this  a  similar  office  existed  in  the  imperial  court.  Afterward, 
during  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (A.  D.  595-628),  the  following 
works  were  composed  :  "  Tennoki "  (historical  record  of  the  successive 
7 


I46  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

emperors),  "Kokuki"  (provincial  records),  and  chronicles  of  the  two 
families  of  Omi  and  Muraji ;  but  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
Empress  Kokiyoku  (A.  D.  645),  during  the  feud  with  Iruka  and  Emiji, 
these  works  were  burnt.  Later,  in  the  fifth  year  of  Dado  (A.  D.  712), 
during  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Gemmiyo,  Futo  Yasumaro  presented  her 
with  a  history  which  he  had  composed  from  the  personal  narrative  of  the 
Emperor  Temmu,  and  still  later  the  six  histories,  "  Nihon-shoki,"  "Bun- 
toku-jitsuroku,"and  "  Sandai-jitsuroku,"  were  successively  written.  But 
they  were  written  in  Chinese,  so  that  without  explanation  the  unlettered 
could  not  understand  them.  Hence  there  existed  in  the  middle  ages 
rules  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Nihonki,  and  gradually  it  came  to  be 
considered  as  a  religious  work  on  Shintoism.  Both  Shinto  and  Buddh- 
ist priests  explained  it  as  a  work  on  Confucianism  or  Buddhism,  so  that 
at  last  incorrect  opinions  and  statements  were  formed,  with  which  the 
ignorant  were  misled.  Owing  to  the  frequent  wars,  however,  these  doc- 
trines were  neglected,  and  at  last  there  were  none  who  believed  in  them. 
In  the  period  of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1688- 1703),  the  Buddhist  priest  Keichiu, 
of  the  province  of  Settsu,  who  was  clever  in  composing  Japanese  poetry, 
in  order  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  old  Japanese  words,  consulted  all 
kinds  of  books,  so  that  eventually  he  corrected  the  erroneous  opinions 
of  the  scholars  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the  true  meaning  of  old  Jap- 
anese was  in  some  degree  made  clear.  Contemporaneous  with  Keichiu, 
the  Shinto  priest  Hagura  Itsuki,  of  Yamashiro,  calling  himself  Kada 
Adzumamaro,  carefully  examined  old  works,  and  discovered  much  in 
them ;  and  one  of  his  pupils,  Okabe  Yeji,  of  Totomi,  who  also  called 
himself  Kamo  no  Mabuchi,  corrected  many  errors  of  long  standing. 
He  was  the  first  to  excite  a  general  interest  in  the  cultivation  of  Japanese 
learning,  and  to  him  is  due  the  revival  of  the  study  of  Shinto  sacred 
works,  history,  poetry,  etc.  Moto-ori  Nobunaga,  of  the  province  of 
Ise,  one  of  his  scholars,  found  out  much  that  his  master  had  not  dis- 
covered, and  recovered  a  considerable  store  of  historical,  antique,  and 
poetic  knowledge,  that  had  been  lost  for  more  than  a  thousand 
years,  thus  greatly  increasing  and  stimulating  learning.  This  learning 
was  called  "  Japanese  learning,"  in  distinction  from  Chinese  learning. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I47 

Among  his  pupils  were  Murata  Harumi  and  Kato  Chikage.  The  formet 
was  noted  for  his  acquaintance  with  law  and  ancient  customs  ;  the  lat- 
ter was  well  versed  in  poetic  lore,  and  was  also  expert  in  composing 
poetry.  After  this  there  were  many  who  applied  themselves  to  Japan- 
ese learning,  but  there  were  none  who  were  not  indebted  to  the  above- 
mentioned  scholars,  and  to  them  is  also  due  the  universal  prevalence, 
at  the  present  day,  of  "Japanese  learning  "  in  the  empire. 

Confucian  Learning  (Jugaku). — The  origin  of  Confucian  learning 
dates  from  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ojhi  (A.  D. 
284),  when  Ajiki  came  from  Kudara,  in  Corea,  and  taught  the  imperial 
Prince  Uji  Wakai-iratsuko  the  Chinese  classics.  In  the  following  year 
Wani  came  to  Japan  and  became  the  prince's  teacher.  This  was  the 
source  from  which  Confucian  learning  originated,  and  gradually  in- 
creased and  spread.  In  the  seventh  year  of  the  Emperor  Keitai  (A.  D. 
513),  Danyoji  came  over  from  Corea,  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  same 
reign  Ko-ammo  followed.  After  this  others  came  over  and  taught, 
while  students  went  from  Japan  to  Corea  to  study.  In  the  first  year  of 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kotoku  (A.  D.  645),  the  Buddhist  priest  Bin 
and  Takamuku  Kuromasa  were  appointed  professors  of  Confucian 
learning.  In  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko,  A.  D. 
599,  they  had  returned  to  Japan  from  their  studies  abroad.  By  imperial 
command,  in  the  second  year  of  the  same  reign,  eight  government  de- 
partments and  a  hundred  offices  were  organized  under  the  direction  of 
these  two  professors,  and  it  is  probable  that  at  this  time  a  university 
was  also  established.  At  a  later  time,  the  mode  of  examination  was 
made  the  same  as  it  was  in  China.  We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that 
at  this  time  there  were  many  learned  scholars. 

After  the  middle  ages  the  two  families  of  Kiyowara  and  Nakahara 
were  intrusted  with  the  direction  of  the  study  of  the  Chinese  classics, 
while  the  families  of  Sugawara  and  Oye  were  concerned  principally  with 
Chinese  composition.  Subsequently  students  ceased  to  go  abroad,  and 
foreigners  ceased  to  come  over.  Moreover,  continual  wars  raged,  and 
learning  fell  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Buddhist  priesthood.  In  the 
period  of  Tensho  (A.  D.  1573-1591),  Soshun,  the  second  son  of  the 


148  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

noble  Reizen  Tamezumi,  became  a  priest  of  the  Buddhist  temple  Sokokuji. 
Having  studied  the  works  of  the  philosophers  Tei  and  Shu,  being  the 
first  who  did  so,  he  left  the  priesthood,  called  himself  Fujiwara  Shiku,  and 
also  took  the  surname  Seikwa.  Hayashi  Doshun,  Matsunaga  Sekigo, 
Nawa  Doin,  and  others,  were  among  his  pupils.  After  this  Chinese 
learning  once  more  began  to  flourish,  and  supporters  of  the  doctrines  of 
Yomei  arose,  while  others  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the 
art  of  composing  by  the  aid  of  ancient  Chinese  characters.  In  conse- 
quence of  this,  the  descendants  of  old  families  such  as  Sugawara, 
Kiyowara,  and  others,  at  this  time  became  learned  scholars. 

Schools  (Gakkd). — The  first  mention  of  a  school-director  (Fumiya- 
no-kami,  i.  e.,  commissioner  of  schools)  is  made  in  the  tenth  year  of 
the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Tenji  (A.  D.  664),  when  Kishitsu  Shushin  was 
invested  with  this  rank.  However,  as  the  Buddhist  priest  Bin  and  Ta- 
kamuku  Kuromasa  were  appointed  professors  in  the  first  year  of  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Kotoku  (A.  D.  645),  and  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  same 
reign,  the  eight  departments  and  one  hundred  offices  were  created ;  it 
is  probable  that  at  this  time  also  a  school  was  opened  and  a  Fumiya- 
no-kami  (commissioner  of  schools)  was  appointed.  Afterward,  in 
the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Temmu  (A.  D.  676),  the 
Daigaku  Riyo  (university  department)  existed,  among  the  officers  of 
which  the  several  ranks  of  Kami  (chief),  Suki  (vice-chief),  Daijo 
(senior  secretary),  Shojo  (junior  secretary),  Dai  Sakan  (senior  clerk), 
and  Sho-sakan  (junior  clerk),  existed.  These  officers  managed  all 
matters  connected  with  the  university.  For  providing  instruction  a 
Hakase  (professor)  and  two  Jokiyo  (assistant  teachers)  were  appointed, 
who  taught  the  classes.  There  were  four  hundred  students,  who 
were  divided  into  various  classes,  each  studying  the  subject  taught  ii. 
the  class  to  which  he  belonged.  Besides  the  above  teachers,  there 
were  two  On-Hakase  (professors  of  the  sounds  of  Chinese  characters), 
two  Sho-Hakase  (writing-masters),  and  two  San-Hakase  (arithmeti- 
cians) ;  these  two  last  mentioned  taught  each  thirty  students.  The  above 
was  the  number  of  officers,  teachers,  and  students,  as  fixed  by  law 
during  the  period  of  Taiho  (A.  D.  701-703).  But,  although  this  system 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I49 

was  adhered  to  in  after-times,  some  slight  changes  were  made,  such 
as  the  appointing  and  abolishing  of  Kiden-Hakase  (professors  of  his- 
tory and  records)  and  Ritsugaku-Hakase  (professors  of  law),  and  the 
addition  of  Bunsho-Hakase  (professors  of  composition)  and  Meiho-Ha- 
kase  (law  professors).  Excepting  these  slight  changes,  the  before-men- 
tioned system  was  adhered  to. 

In  after-times  the  two  families  of  Sugawara  and  Oye  established  in 
the  university  a  bunsho-in  (composition-school),  which  was  divided  into 
East  Hall  and  West  Hall,  the  chief  of  the  former  being  Sugawara,  while 
the  latter  was  directed  by  Oye.  Here  composition  was  exclusively 
taught  and  encouraged.  Although  such  was  the  condition  of  the  uni- 
versity, still  before  the  period  of  Genkiyo  (A.  D.  1321-1323)  and  Remmu 
(A.  D.  1334-1335)  it  had  gradually  declined,  and  at  last,  after  the  wars 
of  the  period  of  Onin  (A.  D.  1467-1468),  not  even  a  trace  of  it  remained. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  university  at  Kioto,  schools  existed 
and  flourished  in  all  the  provinces.  In  each  of  these  provincial  schools 
there  was  a  hakase  (professor),  a  doctor  (i.  e.,  medical  professor),  etc. 
In  the  very  large  provinces  the  number  of  students  was  fifty ;  in 
the  larger  provinces  it  was  forty  ;  in  those  of  medium  size  it  was  thirty ; 
and  in  the  smaller  twenty.  Those  among  these  students  who  success- 
fully passed  the  examinations  of  the  Shikibu  (Board  of  Rites)  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  university.  Although  it  is  impossible  to  say  when  these 
provincial  schools  ceased  to  exist,  yet,  owing  to  the  gradual  breaking  up 
of  the  local  governments,  and  to  the  cessation  of  the  old  rule  of  send- 
ing chief  magistrates  from  Kioto,  the  diffusion  of  education  came  to  a 
standstill  in  every  part  of  the  empire. 

Private  Schools  (Shigakii). — The  establishment  of  private  schools 
originated  with  the  noble  Wage  Kiyomaro,  whose  son  Hiroyo,  carrying 
out  and  fulfilling  his  father's  intentions,  converted,  during  the  period  of 
Yenriyaku  (A.  D.  782-805),  his  own  residence  into  a.  school,  which  he 
called  the  Kobun-in.  Afterward  the  Kuangaku-in  of  the  Fujiwara 
family,  the  Gak-kuan-in  of  the  Tachibana  family,  and  the  Sogaku-in 
of  the  Ariwara  family,  were  established.  The  Sogaku-in  was  founded 
by  Ariwara  Yukihira ;  the  Gaku-kuan-in  by  Tachibana  Kachiko,  the 


150  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

imperial  consort  of  the  Emperor  Saga  (A.  D.  850)  ;  and  the  Kuan-gaku-in 
by  Fujiwara  Fuyustugu.  The  use  of  each  of  these  schools  was  con- 
fined to  the  members  of  the  respective  families  who  had  founded  them. 

The  first  private  school  established  by  the  military  class  was  founded 
about  the  year  A.  D.  1215  or  1216,  by  Akitoki,  the  grandson  of  Hojo 
Yoshitoki,  at  Kanazawa,  where  he  resided,  and  by  which  name  he  called 
himself.  To  this  school  he  added  a  library,  and  collected  books. 

At  the  present  day  books  bearing  the  stamp  of  the  Kanazawa  Li- 
brary are  to  be  found  here  and  there  ;  these  books  all  belonged  to  this 
school.  After  this,  during  the  prevalence  of  wars,  it  happened  from 
time  to  time  that  the  powerful  chieftains  who  acquired  dominions  estab- 
lished schools  for  the  benefit  of  the  members  of  their  families  and  of 
their  retainers,  but  none  of  these  reached  the  flourishing  condition  of 
the  Shoheiko  founded  by  the  Tokugawa  family. 

The  origin  of  this  school  was  as  follows  :  Dainagon  Tokugawa 
Yoshinawo  founded,  at  the  country-seat  of  Hayashi  Doshun,  situated 
in  Uyeno,  a  school  which  he  called  the  Kobun-in.  In  the  fourth  year 
of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1691)  this  school  was  removed  by  the  Shogun  Toku- 
gawa Tsunayoshi  to  the  ascent  of  Shohei,  and  here  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple in  honor  of  Confucius  was  built,  where  the  shogun's  retainers  re- 
ceived education.  Rules  for  examination  were  fixed,  and  those  who 
were  found  proficient  were  appointed  to  office.  This  was  called  the 
Shohei-zaka-gaku-monjo,  and  the  festivals,  etc.,  held  in  spring  and  au- 
tumn, in  honor  of  Confucius,  were  very  celebrated. 

EXAMINATIONS  AND  CLASSIFICATION   OF   HONORS. 

According  to  the  book  of  laws,  called  Riyo,  examinations  were 
divided  into  the  four  classes  of  Shiu-sai,  Meikei,  Shin-shi,  and  Mei-ho. 
To  these  were  added  examinations  in  penmanship  and  mathematics,  thus 
forming  six  subjects  similar  to  the  six  examinations  which  had  been 
established  in  China  during  the  dynasty  of  To.  The  candidates  for 
examination  were  divided  into  two  kinds,  namely,  those  sent  from  the 
university,  who  were  called  Kiojin,  and  those  sent  from  the  provinces, 
who  were  called  Kojin.  The  following  are  the  particulars  of  the  above : 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I5! 

Skiu-sai. — The  candidates  for  this  examination  were  chosen  from 
those  who  had  read  many  books.  Two  important  subjects  were  selected 
upon  which  essays  were  to  be  composed,  such  subjects,  for  instance,  as 
the  following  :  "What  was  the  cause  of  the  abundance  of  sages  during 
the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Shu  ?  " 

Those  whose  composition  was  conspicuously  elegant  and  pure,  and 
whose  reasoning  was  very  acute  and  sound,  received  the  rank  of  Jo-no- 
jo  (First  of  the  First).  Those  whose  composition  was  equally  good, 
but  did  not  reach  so  high  a  standard  in  reason,  received  the  rank  of  Jo- 
no-chiu  (Medium  of  the  First).  Those  who  were  noted  for  their  rea- 
soning, but  less  so  for  the  style  of  their  composition,  took  this  degree 
also.  Those  whose  composition  and  reasoning  were  only  good,  took 
the  rank  of  Chiu-no-jo  (First  of  the  Medium).  Those  whose  work  was 
below  this  did  not  take  any  degree. 

The  Jo-no-jo  received  the  honorary  rank  of  Sho-hachi-i. 

The  Jo-no-chiu  that  of  Sho-hachi-i-ge. 

The  others  did  not  receive  any  rank,  but  were  attached  to  the 
department  of  Shikibu,  and  when  vacancies  occurred  they  were  filled 
from  among  them,  and  together  with  this  appointment  rank  was  con- 
ferred. 

Mei-ket. — This  examination  consisted  of  one  subject  out  of  each 
of  the  Chinese  classical  works  of  "  Shurai,"  "  Saden,"  "  Raiki,"  and 
"  Moshi,"  three  other  subjects  from  among  the  other  Chinese  classics, 
and  also  three  subjects  from  the  two  Chinese  classics  of  "  Kokiyo  "  and 
"  Kongo,"  in  all  ten  subjects.  In  all  these  subjects  questions  were 
asked  both  upon  the  original  text  and  the  commentaries. 

All  those  who  clearly  and  correctly  explained  the  sense  of  both  the 
text  and  the  commentaries  passed.  Those  successfully  passing  in  the 
ten  subjects  receiving  the  degree  of  Jo-no-jo ;  those  passing  in  eight 
and  more  received  the  degree  of  Jo-no-chiu.  Those  who  passed  in  six 
received  the  degree  of  Chiu-no-jo.  Those  who  passed  in  only  five  sub- 
jects and  one  classic,  and  besides  failed  in  Kongo  and  Kokiyo,  ob- 
tained no  degree,  while  those  who  comprehended  two  or  more  classics 
were  examined  in  one  subject  selected  from  each  of  the  classics,  being 


I52  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

required  to  give  the  principal  ideas,  and,  if  five  or  more  subjects  were 
successfully  answered,  the  candidates  passed.  The  Jo-no-jo  received 
the  rank  of  Sho-hachi-i-ge ;  the  Jo-no-chiu  that  of  Ju-hachi-i-jo ;  the 
others  were  rated  the  same  as  for  the  Shiu-sai  examination. 

Shin-shi. — This  examination  consisted  of  two  subjects  upon  public 
matters  of  the  period,  seven  trials  of  memory  in  reading  the  work 
"  Monsen,"  and  three  in  the  work  "Jiga."  These  trials  were  made  by 
concealing  certain  characters,  which  characters  were  to  be  supplied  in 
reading  the  passage. 

Those  who  answered  the  two  questions  on  public  matters  in  a  clear 
and  correct  manner,  and  successfully  read  the  passage  in  which  some 
character  was  concealed,  obtained  the  degree  of  Ko. 

Those  who  were  successful  in  passing  the  questions,  but  failed  in 
not  more  than  four  of  the  passages,  took  the  degree  of  Otsu. 

All  others  did  not  obtain  any  degree. 

Meiho. — This  consisted  of  seven  questions  on  Ritsu  (law),  and  three 
upon  Riyo. 

Those  who  answered  correctly  the  two  questions  took  the  degree  of 
Ko. 

Those  who  failed  in  not  more  than  two  took  the  degree  of  Otsu. 

Penmanship  (Sho). — Those  who  formed  and  finished  the  characters 
with  elegance  passed. 

Mathematics  (Sari). — This  examination  consisted  in  three  questions 
on  the  work  "  Kiusho,"  and  one  question  in  each  of  the  works  "  Kaito," 
"Shiuhi,"  "  Goso,"  "  Kiushi,"  "  Sonshi,"  "  Sankai,"  and  "  Chosa." 

Those  who  passed  successfully  in  all  took  the  degree  of  Ko. 

Those  who  failed  in  not  more  than  four  took  the  degree  of  Otsu. 

But,  although  six  questions  were  successfully  answered,  still,  if  those 
on  the  Kiusho  had  not  been  answered,  no  degree  was  conferred. 

Penmanship  (Sho-gakrf). — In  this  country  the  manner  of  writing 
was  learned  by  copying  Chinese  writing,  and  in  ancient  ages  did  not 
differ  from  the  Chinese ;  and,  if  we  examine  old  records  and  manu- 
scripts, we  find  that  the  character  in  which  they  are  written  is  exactly 
similar  to  the  Chinese. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !53 

In  the  period  of  Yen-riyaku  (A.  D.  947-956),  Ono-no  Tofu,  a  cele- 
brated calligrapher,  composed  seventeen  rules  of  penmanship ;  and,  in 
the  period  of  Kuan-jin  (A.  D.  1014-1020),  Fujivvara  Yukinari  made  six- 
teen different  specimens  of  handwriting.  From  these  two  originated  a 
kind  of  Wafuo  (Japanese  style).  The  style  which  these  two  introduced 
was,  in  later  ages,  called  Jodairiu  (ancient  style).  The  Fushimi-in 
style  also  sprung  out  of  the  above-mentioned  style.  The  Imperial  Prince 
Sonyen,  son  of  the  Emperor  Fushimi-in,  afterward  introduced  the  rich 
and  beautiful  style  of  Sonyenriu  ;  this  prince  was  the  designer  of  the 
purest  Japanese  style.  The  Prince  Sondo  learned  this  style,  and  origi- 
nated another  style,  which,  in  later  times,  was  called  Onye-riu  (impe- 
rial style). 

Until  recent  days  a  knowledge  of  this  style  of  writing  was  necessary 
to  be  able  to  obtain  a  secretaryship  under  the  government ;  on  this  ac- 
count all  writing-masters  taught  it  to  their  pupils.  Although  this  style 
generally  prevailed,  still  gentlemen  and  poets  occasionally  introduced  new 
styles,  which,  they  named  after  themselves  ;  but  in  reality  no  great  dif- 
ference existed  between  them.  Those,  however,  which  were  most  read- 
ily recognized  by  their  peculiarities  were  the  Tei-ka,  Konoye,  Takimoto, 
and  Royetsu  styles. 

The  Chinese  style  of  writing  now  in  use  was  originated  by  Hosoi- 
Chishu.  He  was  a  native  of  Yedo,  and  adopted  the  name  of  Kotaku. 
His  style  was  in  great  vogue  during  the  period  of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1688- 
1 703),  being  called  the  Karayo  (Chinese  style).  Among  his  pupils  was 
Matsushita  Kasshin,  who  called  himself  Useki.  He  became,  like  his 
master,  very  celebrated  for  penmanship.  Immediately  succeeding  these, 
Akai  Tokusui,  Toko  Genriu,  and  others,  attained  to  celebrity  ;  neverthe- 
less, the  styles  which  became  especially  popular  were  the  recent  ones 
of  Ichikawa  Sangai  and  Maki  Taijin.  At  present  the  Maki  Taijin  style 
is  as  universal  as  the  Oye  style  formerly  was. 


154 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


CHAPTER   VI. 

JAPANESE  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES. 

Drawing  and  Painting  (Ga-gakii). — Although  Japanese  pictures 
are  not  imitations  of  those  of  other  countries,  still  the  art  was  originally 
acquired  from  foreigners.  The  earliest  mention  made  of  foreign  artists 
is  in  the  seventh  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Yuriyaku  (A.  D.  463), 
when,  by  imperial  command,  various  artists  were  sent  over  from  Ku- 
dara,  in  Corea,  and  among  these  was  the  painter  Inshiraga.  Though 
many  other  artists  afterward  came  to  this  country,  none  of  their  authen- 
ticated productions  remain.  There  exists,  however,  at  the  present  day, 
in  the  temple  of  Horiuji,  in  the  province  of  Yamato,  portraits,  etc.,  of 
the  Imperial  Prince  Shotoku  ;  these  works  have  in  all  probability  de- 
scended from  that  ancient  period. 

Subsequently,  a  painting-department  was  established  in  the  govern- 
ment, to  which,  besides  the  managing  officers,  were  attached  four 
Gashi  (artists)  and  sixty  Gabu  (inferior  artists  or  sketchers).  This  de- 
partment was  probably  created  during  the  period  of  Taiho  (A.  D.  701- 
703).  In  the  third  year  of  Taido  (A.  D.  808),  it  was  abolished  as  a  dis- 
tinct department,  and  was  incorporated  with  the  Takumi-riyo  (architect- 
ural department),  in  which  a  Yedokoro  (government  studio)  was  formed, 
and  to  which  a  chief,  styled  Yedokoro-adzukari,  was  attached.  Al- 
though this  was  the  case,  still  it  would  appear  that  the  principal  pur- 
pose of  this  office  was  the  decoration,  etc.,  of  the  imperial  palace ;  so 
that  no  great  skill  was  at  that  time  attained  to  in  drawing  and  painting. 
But,  after  Koze  Hirotaka  became  the  Yedokoro-adzukari,  this  office 
was  filled  from  age  to  age  by  skillful  painters. 

Besides,  there  were  many  private  artists  who  were  noted  for  their 
skill ;  such  as  Fujiwara  Mototsune,  Fujiwara  Nobuzane,  Sojoakuyu, 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !55 

and  others.  Their  works  are  noted  for  clearness  of  outline  and  the  mi- 
nute and  delicate  handling  of  the  details.  Afterward  the  style  grad- 
ually changed  into  one  of  less  vigor  but  of  greater  beauty,  and  more 
particularly  noted  for  the  fineness  of  its  strokes.  The  art  was  used  to 
delineate  court  nobles  in  their  dress  of  ceremony,  and  other  simi- 
lar subjects.  The  creations  of  this  style  were  called  Yamato  or  Tosa 
pictures ;  they  received  the  latter  appellation  from  Tsunetaka,  the 
grandson  of  the  Yedokoro-adzukari,  Fujiwara  Takayoshi.  He  became 
vice-governor  of  the  province  of  Tosa,  and  hence  his  descendants 
adopted  the  family  name  of  Tosa.  Among  these  descendants  was  Hi- 
romichi,  who,  in  the  second  year  of  Kanbun  (A.  D.  1662),  changed  the 
family  name  to  Sumiyoshi. 

During  the  middle  ages,  from  the  period  of  Yenkei  (A.  D.  1308- 
1310)  to  the  period  of  Teiwa  (A.  D.  1345-1349),  Kao,  Meicho,  Josetsu, 
Shiubun,  and  others,  appeared,  who  studied  the  style  of  the  Chinese 
dynasties  of  So  and  Gen.  This  style  is  noted  for  its  sketchy  char- 
acter ;  confining  itself  to  making,  by  means  of  a  few  hasty  strokes, 
a  mere  approximate  outline  of  the  object  delineated.  Afterward,  and 
during  the  Ming  dynasty  (Chinese),  the  Buddhist  priest  Sesshu  went  to 
China  and  attained  great  fame. 

Soon  after  this,  Kano  O-oinosuke  Masanobu,  of  the  province  of 
Sagami,  flourished ;  his  son  Motonobu,  by  his  fame  as  an  artist,  ren- 
dered his  family  name  celebrated ;  his  descendants  followed  this  art 
from  age  to  age.  The  two  families  of  Sumiyoshi  and  Kano  continue, 
even  at  the  present  day,  to  follow  this  profession. 

About  the  year  A.  D.  1580  a  certain  Iwasa  Matabe,  adopting  the 
Tosa  style,  delineated  the  customs  of  his  time  ;  his  productions  are  gen- 
erally known  as  Ukiyoye  (worldly  pictures) . 

During  the  period  of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1688-1703),  Hishigawa  Moro- 
nobu,  of  Yedo,  rendered  the  Matabe  style  popular ;  and  Torii  Kiyo- 
mitsu,  Okuda  Masanobu,  and  others,  distinguished  themselves  in  it.  At 
the  present  day,  the  Utagawa  style  is  very  generally  cultivated,  although 
it  is  not  much  esteemed,  and  is  also  called  Ukiyo. 

The  Medical  Art  (I-gakii).— Although  in  this  country  it  is  impos- 


156  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

sible  to  trace  the  healing  art  to  its  beginning,  still  there  is  no  doubt  bat 
that  it  has  existed  from  very  ancient  times  ;  for  we  have  Tana-muchi 
and  Mikoto  of  Sukuna  Hikona,  both  of  whom  were  honored  as 
deities  of  medicine.  But  no  complete  account  of  the  methods  they 
followed  has  descended  to  us ;  besides,  owing  to  the  fact  that  much 
has  been  incorrectly  ascribed  to  them,  it  is  very  difficult  to  deter- 
mine for  what  we  really  are  indebted  to  them.  In  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Inkiyo  (A.  D.  412-453),  Kimpa-Shinkan-Kibu,  of  the  province 
of  Siraki,  in  Corea,  came  over  to  Japan,  and,  possessing  a  knowledge 
of  medicine,  cured  the  emperor  of  his  illness.  After  this,  the  Chinese 
medical  system  gradually  came  into  use ;  students  went  abroad  and 
acquired  the  arts  of  surgery,  acupuncture,  amma  (i.  e.,  dry  shampooing  of 
the  body  to  promote  a  freer  circulation  of  the  blood),  etc.  At  the  same 
time  numerous  medical  practitioners  came  over  to  this  country,  and  the 
healing  art  was  practised  according  to  Chinese  medical  works. 

The  first  record  of  the  appointing  of  imperial  court  physicians  is  in 
the  first  year  of  Shucho  (A.  D.  686),  at  which  time  there  were  many  who 
were  proficient  in  therapeutics.  After  this  the  rules,  etc.,  for  the  exami- 
nation of  medical  students  became  very  complete ;  the  students  being 
examined  monthly  by  the  professors,  annually  by  the  chief  and  vice- 
chief  of  the  Medical  Department,  and  again  at  the  end  of  each  year  by 
the  chief  and  vice-chief  of  the  Imperial  Household.  Those  who  passed 
in  all  the  subjects  obtained  the  honorary  rank  of  Ju-hachi-i-ge  (a  rank 
of  the  twenty-sixth  degree),  while  those  who  failed  in  not  more  than  two 
subjects  obtained  the  honorary  rank  of  Dai-shoi-jo  (a  rank  of  the  twen- 
ty-seventh degree).  The  students  of  acupuncture  ranked  one  degree 
below  the  medical  students.  Those  who  failed  to  obtain  a  degree  at 
the  examinations  were  sent  back  to  the  schools  from  which  they  had 
come.  Similar  examinations  for  doctors  were  also  held  in  the  prov- 
inces, and  medical  art  was  industriously  pursued.  Subsequently,  how- 
ever, these  examinations  gradually  ceased.  In  the  first  year  of  Yenri- 
yaku  (A.  D.  947)  they  were,  by  an  imperial  order,  reestablished,  but 
without  any  great  success.  As  time  advanced,  the  two  families  of 
Wage  and  Tamba  produced  from  age  to  age  numerous  celebrated  phy- 


ED  UCA  TION  IN  JAPAN,  x  -  7 

sicians,  so  that  at  length  these  two  families  hereditarily  supplied  the  im- 
perial court  physicians.  But  all  their  descendants  did  not  succeed  in 
the  medical  art,  so  that,  although  they  successively  held  the  posts  of 
"medical  chief"  and  " dispenser-in-chief,"  there  were,  nevertheless, 
those  among  them  who  were  not  qualified  to  fill  these  offices.  There- 
fore, from  time  to  time,  outside  physicians  were  called  in  to  attend  upon 
the  emperor ;  such,  for  instance,  as  Jubutsu,  Shibutsu,  the  Buddhist 
priest  Kojo,  and  others. 

In  the  period  of  Tembun  (A.  D.  1532-1554)  there  lived  Manase  Do- 
san,  who  was  in  the  service  of  the  Shogun  Ashikaga  Yoshiteru,  and 
who  cured  the  Emperor  Ogi  Machi  of  his  sickness ;  he  was  called  a 
doctor  of  the  Tankei  school. 

Also  at  this  time  Osada  Tokuhon  became  celebrated.  He  was  a 
native  of  the  province  of  Mikawa,  was  the  author  of  the  nineteen 
medical  doctrines,  and,  having  introduced  many  new  ideas  and  making 
use  of  powerful  medicines,  became  noted  for  the  effectiveness  of  his 
treatment.  He  was  the  reviver  of  Japanese  medical  art.  He  died  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period  of  Kuanye  (A.  D.  1624-1643),  aged  one 
hundred  and  eighteen  years. 

Between  and  during  the  periods  of  Genbun  (A.  D.  1736-1740)  and 
Horeki  (A.  D.  1751-1763),  there  lived  a  man  by  the  name  of  Hatake- 
yama  Tamenori,  of  the  province  of  Aki,  who  called  himself  Todo  and 
changed  his  family  name  to  Yoshimaru.  Lamenting  the  decline  into 
which  the  medical  art  had  fallen,  this  man  cleared  away  many  long- 
standing errors,  adopted  the  ancient  method  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of 
Kan,  and  confined  himself  to  the  use  of  powerful  medicines.  His 
school  was  called  Koho-ka  (ancient  method). 

Before  this  such  men  as  Fukui  Futei,  Hangino  Taishiu,  Mochidzuki 
Sanyei,  Taki  Angen,  and  others  existed,  who  followed  a  method  which 
they  had  formed  by  combining  the  ancient  and  modern  systems,  and 
which  was  noted  for  its  good  results. 

At  this  time  Mayeno  Riyotaku,  cf  the  province  of  Buzen,  followed 
the  surgical  profession,  and,  intent  upon  anatomy,  studied  with  his 
friends  Sugita  Issai  and  Katsuragawa  Hoshiu,  by  the  aid  of  the  inter- 


I58  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

preters  at  Nagasaki,  some  Dutch  works,  and,  together  with  Udagawa 
Yo-an  and  Otsuki  Gentaku,  made  use  of  Dutch  medicines. 

Besides  introducing  the  use  of  Dutch  drugs,  they  were  the  founders 
of  the  whole  system  of  European  learning  existing  at  the  present  day. 
It  is  true  that  before  them  Awoki  Tonsho  and  Arai  Kimiyoshi  had  al- 
ready made  a  beginning  in  this  direction  ;  but  they  did  not  get  so  far  as 
to  be  able  by  themselves  to  study  European  books. 

Materia  Medica  (  YakublUsu-gaku). — In  the  middle  ages  the  sci- 
ence of  drugs  was  not  studied,  as  it  had  been  in  more  ancient  times. 
The  first  record  we  have  concerning  this  science  is  in  the  "  Nihonki," 
where  it  is  mentioned  that  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kimmei, 
and  about  the  year  A.  D.  540,  professional  searchers  of  medicinal  herbs 
were  sent  over  from  Kudara,  in  Corea.  We  find  that  afterward  there 
were  native  botanists  in  this  country,  who  taught  their  pupils  the  Chi- 
nese botanical  works  of  "  Honzo,"  etc.  Fukaye  Sukeshito,  Tamba 
Yasuyori,  and  others,  were  celebrated  for  their  knowledge  of  acology. 
In  later  years,  and  during  the  period  of  Onin  (A.  D.  1467-1468),  there 
was  Takeda  Sadamori,  and  during  the  period  of  Temmon  (A.  D.  1532- 
1554)  there  lived  such  others  as  Yoshida  Soke,  who,  although  they  fol- 
lowed this  art,  did  not  render  themselves  conspicuous  in  it  by  the  dis- 
covery or  identification  of  medicinal  plants  in  the  Japanese  flora.  About 
the  period  of  Genroku  (A.  D.  1688-1703)  Kaibara  Tokushin,  of  the 
province  of  Chikuzen,  composed  the  botanical  work  "  Yamato  Honzo," 
and,  shortly  after,  Ina  Nobuoshi,  of  Yedo,  also  called  Jaku  Sui,  com- 
posed the  work  "  Shobutsu  Ruisan,"  of  one  thousand  volumes,  execut- 
ing himself  the  botanical  drawings  with  which  it  is  illustrated.  From 
him  Matsu-oka  Gentatsu  received  his  learning,  and  Matsu-oka  Gentatsu 
was  the  teacher  of  Ono  Ranzan.  The  shogun's  government,  hearing 
of  Ranzan's  fame,  called  him  to  Yedo.  Many  of  his  pupils  became 
noted  in  their  profession,  among  whom  was  Ito  Keisuke,  who  continued 
his  studies  under  Utagawa  Yo-an,  and,  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the 
Linnsean  botanical  system,  introduced  it  into  this  country,  where  it  is 
still  in  vogue.  Utagawa  Yo-an  and  Otsuki  Gentaku  studied  European 
botany,  and  were  the  first  to  bequeath  to  Japan  Dutch  learning.  Among 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  I59 

the  works  of  Gentaku  is  "  Ranyen-teki-ho,"  in  forty  volumes.  Among 
those  of  Yo-an  is  "  Shokugaku-kei-gen."  Besides  the  above-mentioned 
celebrities,  Abe  Shoo,  Tamura  Ransui,  Hiraga  Kiukei,  Ota  Taishiu, 
and  others,  have  become  renowned  for  their  botanical  studies  and 
learning. 

Surgery  (Gekwci). — In  ancient  times  surgeons  were  called  Soshoi 
(doctors  of  wounds  and  sores),  and  this  art  existed  as  a  distinct  call- 
ing ;  but  after  the  middle  ages  the  distinction  was  abolished,  and  the 
most  effectual  surgical  treatment  was  that  practised  by  members  of 
the  two  families  of  Wage  and  Tamba. 

About  the  period  of  Keicho  (A.  D.  1596-1614),  Takatori  Hidetsugu 
flourished,  and  was  celebrated  in  surgery,  the  followers  of  the  system 
he  originated  being  called  the  Takatori  school.  Besides  this  there  were 
those  who  practised  surgery  according  to  the  Portuguese  method  ;  these 
were  called  the  Namban  (foreign  school).  However,  these  systems 
gradually  declined,  and  new  ones  were  introduced  by  such  men  as 
Kurizaki-Shou,  Narabayashi  Toyoshige,  etc.  During  and  between  the 
periods  of  Kiowa  (A.  D.  1801-1803)  and  Bunkua  (A.  D.  1804-1817), 
Hana-oka  Dymken,  of  the  province  of  Kii,  invented  some  surgical  in- 
struments, with  which  he  performed  operations  for  the  cure  of  cancer 
in  the  breast,  and  caries,  opening  the  parts  affected  for  the  purpose  of 
washing  them  and  removing  the  virulent  matter.  By  his  skill  he  be- 
came very  celebrated,  and  even  at  the  present  day  followers  of  his  sys- 
tem exist,  who  are  called  the  Hana-oka  school. 

Doctors  of  Acitpuncture  (I far  it). — At  what  time  the  art  of  acupunct- 
ure was  first  followed  in  this  country  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  But, 
according  to  the  ancient  imperial  orders,  provision  is  made  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  professor  of  acupuncture,  and  also  for  the  instruction  of 
students  in  this  art.  But  few  became  noted  for  their  skill  in  it. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  period  Yeroku  (A.  D.  1558-1569),  Yoshida 
Skiu  went  to  China  to  study  acupuncture  ;  and  his  disciples  were  called 
the  Yoshida  school.  During  the  period  of  Bunroku  (A.  D.  1592-1595), 
Iriye  Raisho  studied  this  art  under  Chinese  teachers,  and  among  his  pu- 
pils was  Yamase  Taku-ichi,  who  was  the  instructor  of  Sugiyama  Wa-ichi. 


X6o  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Wa-ichi  was  employed  by  the'shogun's  government  as  a  doctor  of  acu- 
puncture. 

Calendrography  (Reki-Gakif).—  The  first  mention  of  this  art  is  in  the 
fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Kimmei  (A.  D.  554),  when,  in 
the  second  month  of  this  year,  Kotoku-oson,  a  professor  of  calendrogra- 
phy,  was  sent  over  from  Kudara  in  Corea. 

In  the  tenth  month  of  the  tenth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress 
Suiko  (A.  D.  602),  the  Buddhist  priest  Kuanroku,  of  Kudara,  brought  to 
this  country  an  almanac,  the  use  of  which  he  explained  and  taught  to 
students.  This  almanac  was  called  the  Genka  almanac.  It  was  com- 
posed in  the  second  year  of  the  Chinese  period  of  Genka  (A.  D.  425),  of 
the  Chinese  dynasty  of  So,  and  was  in  use  for  eighty-nine  years  after 
its  introduction.  In  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Jito 
(A.  D.  693),  the  two  almanacs  of  "  Genka  "  and  "  Giho  "  (i.  e.,  "  Rinto- 
ku  ")  were  in  use.  In  the  eighth  month  of  the  seventh  year  of  Tempei- 
hoji  (A.  D.  763),  and  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Junnin,  the 
"  Giho  "  almanac  was  suppressed,  and  in  its  place  the  Tai-yen  almanac 
was  used.  This  almanac  was  composed  by  the  Buddhist  priest  Ichigi- 
yo,  during  the  sixteenth  year  of  the  period  Kuaigen  (A.  D.  728)  of  the 
Chinese  dynasty  of  To.  This  almanac  remained  in  use  during  ninety-four 
years  ;  when,  owing  to  inaccuracies  being  discovered  in  it,  it  was,  upon 
the  memorial  of  the  calendrographer  Akasuga  Manomaro,  suppressed  in 
the  first  month  of  the  first  year  of  Tenan  (A.  D.  857),  and  the  "  Goki  " 
almanac  came  into  use.  This  was  an  almanac  which  Kaku  Kenshi 
and  others  had  corrected,  in  the  first  year  of  Ho-o  (A.  D.  762),  of  the 
Chinese  dynasty  of  To.  But  in  the  sixth  month  of  the  third  year  of  Jo- 
guan  (A.  D.  861),  and  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Seiwa,  Mana- 
maro  again  memorialized  the  emperor,  and,  in  consequence,  the  "  Sem- 
mei  almanac  "  first  came  into  use.  Later  on,  there  were  those  who 
asserted  that  errors  existed  in  this  calendar  ;  but,  owing  to  these  errors 
not  being  minutely  pointed  out,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  office  of 
imperial  calendrographer  had  existed  from  age  to  age  in  the  family  of 
Abe,  and  no  one  else  had  the  power  of  making  alteration  in  almanacs, 
this  almanac  still  continued  in  use. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  Lfa 

After  the  lapse  of  eight  hundred  and  twenty-two  years,  and  in  the 
first  year  of  Teikio  (A.  D.  1684),  there  lived  at  Yedo  Yasui  Santetzu. 
He  was  noted  for  his  skill  at  go  (an  intricate  game  resembling  checkers), 
and  was  also  a  skillful  mathematician.  Finding  out  the  errors  in  the 
"  Semmei  "  almanac,  he  compiled,  upon  the  basis  of  the  "  Juji "  almanac 
of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Gen,  the  "Teikio"  almanac.  Afterward, 
and  in  the  fourth  year  of  Horeki  (A.  D.  1754),  Shibakawa  Dzusho  re- 
corrected  the  "  Teikio  "  almanac,  and  composed  that  of  "  Horeki." 

Before  this  almanac  had  been  long  in  use,  the  science  of  calendrog- 
raphy  made  rapid  progress,  and  Takahashi  Naritoki,  of  Yedo,  and  oth- 
ers, studying  the  work  "  Reki-sho-kosei,"  which  had  been  written  dur- 
ing the  period  of  Koki  (A.  D.  1662-1722)  of  the  Chinese  dynasty  of  Shiu, 
calculated  and  compiled  a  new  almanac,  which  they  presented  to  the 
emperor  in  the  ninth  year  of  Kuansei  (A.  D.  1798).  This  almanac  was, 
in  the  following  year,  distributed  throughout  the  empire,  being  called 
the  "  Kuansei "  almanac. 

Subsequently,  and  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Tempo  (A.  D.  1842),  Shi- 
bukawa  Kagesuke  and  Adaichi  Nobuaki  compiled  another  new  alma- 
nac, which  was  circulated  in  the  same  year,  and  was  called  the  "  Tem- 
pomisu-no-ye-tora  "  almanac. 

Finally,  since  the  sixth  year  of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1873),  the  Gregorian  cal- 
endar has  come  into  use. 

Chronometry  (Rokoku-gakit). — To  the  ancient  department  of  Anyo- 
rio  (astronomical  and  calendrical  department)  there  was  attached  a  ro- 
kokuhakase  (professor  of  the  clepsydra),  who  had  assistants  whose  duty 
it  was  to  watch  and  keep  the  time. 

The  first  clepsydra  was  made  by  the  Emperor  Tenji,  while  still  a 
prince.  In  the  fourth  month  of  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign  (A.  D.  671), 
this  apparatus  was  placed  on  a  new  stand. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  chronometry  in  this  country. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  at  what  date,  after  this,  this  apparatus  ceased 
to  exist,  and  no  records  remain  of  the  manner  of  its  construction. 

It  is  probable  that  clepsydras  ceased  to  be  used  after  the  invention 
of  automatic-striking  instruments  for  measuring  time.  On  account  of 


162  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

the  invention  of  these  more  perfect  instruments,  clepsydras  were  con- 
sidered as  useless,  and  therefore  no  descriptions,  etc.,  were  written  of 
them. 

Automatic-striking  time-keepers  were  first  brought  to  China  by  Ri- 
eci  Matteo  (an  Italian)  during  the  Ming  dynasty,  and  were  first  intro- 
duced into  Japan  during  the  periods  of  Bunroku  (A.  D.  1592-1595)  and 
Keicho  (1596-1614),  certainly  not  before  this  time. 

From  the  time  of  the  clepsydra  above  mentioned,  up  to  this  period, 
it  is  hardly  possible  that  no  instruments  existed  for  measuring  time ; 
still,  although  they  may  have  existed,  it  is  no  doubt  owing  to  the  incon- 
venience of  their  shape,  inefficient  working,  etc.,  that  no  minute  details 
concerning  them  have  descended  to  our  days. 

KAMI,  OR  RIYOSHI  (Japanese  Paper). 

Although  the  first  use  of  paper  in  this  country  is  now  unknown, 
still  in  the  Japanese  history,  the  "  Nihonki,"  there  is  a  record  in  the 
following  words :  "  Paper  is  manufactured,"  referring  to  the  eighteenth 
year  of  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (A.  D.  610).  It  is  very  probable 
that  paper  was  first  made  shortly  after  the  introduction  of  writing. 
In  the  "  Riyo  "  (record  of  enactments)  the  following  sentence  occurs  : 
"  Six  sheets  of  paper  two  feet  long  and  one  foot  wide  ;  "  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  of  what  materials  this  paper  was  made. 

At  about  the  period  of  Yengi  (A.  D.  900-922)  the  three  kinds  of 
paper,  Mashi,  Hishi,  and  Kokushi,  existed.  The  kind  called  Mashi  was 
made  from  the  pulp  of  hempen  rags.  Hishi  paper  was  made  from 
such  plants  as  Gampi  (Wickstraemia  canescens),  while  Kokushi  was 
made  from  Kodzu  (Broussonetia  papyrifera),  and  was  similar  to  the 
paper  in  common  use  at  the  present  time.  Later  on,  Usugo  and 
Atsuyo  paper  were  manufactured ;  but  these  kinds  were  of  the  same 
nature  as  the  Hishi  paper.  From  the  Kozo-plant  also  two  kinds  of 
papers,  Danshi  and  Sugihara,  were  made  ;  it  is,  however,  also  said  that 
Danshi  was,  in  ancient  times,  made  from  the  Mayumi  (Euonymus 
Thunbergianus). 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  ^ 

During  the  middle  ages  Shuzenji  paper,  which  was  made  at  the 
temple  of  Shuzenji,  in  the  province  of  Idzu,  came  into  use. 

There  was  also  a  kind  of  paper  which  was  made  from  old  paper, 
and  was  called  Shukushi.  In  recent  times  many  other  kinds  have  come 
into  use,  an  account  and  the  names  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  suc- 
ceeding paragraph. 

PLANTS   USED   IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  PAPER. 

Koso  (Broussonctia  papyri/era.  See  Fig.  i.). — The  fourth  order 
of  the  twenty-first  class  of  the  Linnasan  system,  and  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Urticacece  of  De  Candolle.  It  is  a  small 
shrub,  attaining  about  five  or  six  feet  in  height,  and  having  branches 
which  proceed  directly  from  the  earth  ;  it  is  deciduous,  the  new  leaves 
appearing  in  spring.  These  leaves  are  of  a  dark-green  color,  ovate  in 
form,  with  a  sinuous  or  serrated  margin,  and  very  rough  upon  the  upper 
surface.  Of  this  shrub  there  are  two  kinds,  pistilliferous  and  stamenif- 
erous.  The  latter  kind  blossom  about  the  middle  of  May ;  this  inflo- 


FIG.  i.— Kozo  (Eroussonetia  papyrifera). 


164 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


FIG.  i.— Kozo  (Broussonetia  papyrifera). 


rescence  is  axillary,  and  supported  on  a  peduncle  of  a  little  more  than 
an  inch  in  length ;  the  corolla  is  monopetalous,  divided  into  four  lobes 
at  the  limb,  and  is  of  a  dark-purple  color.  These  blossoms  are  te- 
trandrous. 

The  inflorescence  of  the  pistilliferous  plant  is  also  supported  on  a 
peduncle,  and  consists  of  a  number  of  flowers  arranged  together  in  a 
head ;  from  each  blossom  a  long  pistil  projects ;  their  color  is  dark 
purple. 

Gampi  (  Wickstrasmia  canescens.  See  Fig.  2.). — The  fourth  order 
of  the  eighth  class  of  Linnasus,  and  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Thymelacete  of  De  Candolle.  This  plant  is  a  deciduous 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN. 


'65 


shrub,  which  grows  from  about  three  or  four  feet  to  about  ten  feet  in 
height.     The  leaves,  which  resemble  the  leaflets  of  the  Naudina  domes- 


FIG.  2. — Gampi  (Wickstroemia  canesccns). 

tica,  are  arranged  on  the  stem  alternately ;  the  under  surface  of  each 
is  covered  with  soft  hairs.  It  blossoms  at  about  the  middle  of  June  ; 
the  inflorescence,  besides  being  axillary,  also  terminates  each  branch, 
and  is  of  a  pale-yellow  color.  The  flowers  are  octandrous,  and  have  one 
pistil. 

Mitsu  Mata  (Edgeworthia  papyrifera.  See  Fig.  3.). — The  first 
order  of  the  eighth  class  of  Linnaeus,  and  a  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Thymelacece  of  De  Candolle.  This  is  a 'deciduous  shrub,  which  grows 
to  about  seven  or  eight  feet  in  height. 


r66  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Its  stem  and  branches  are  trichotomous.  At  the  close  of  autumn, 
from  the  ends  of  the  branches  many  buds  spring  forth,  which  arrange 
themselves  in  a  cluster,  hanging  down  like  a  wild-bee's  nest,  and  blos- 


FIG.  3. — Mitsu  Mata  (Edgeworthia  papyrifera). 

som  when  the  spring  comes  round.  The  flowers  are  like  those  of  the 
Dzu-iko  (Daphne  odora),  having  four  slender  petals.  The  inside  of  the 
corolla  is  of  a  yellow  color,  while  its  outside  is  white. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN. 


167 


The  flower  is  enneandrous,  and  has  one  pistil.  The  leaves  only 
appear  after  the  blossom  has  fallen,  and,  like  those  of  the  Dzu-iko 
(Daphne  odord),  are  large  and  elongated.  The  branches  are  so  soft 
and  pliant  that  they  will  not  break  if  bent  or  knotted. 


FIG.  4. — Tororo  (Hibiscus). 

Tororo  (Hibiscus.  See  Fig.  4.).— The  seventh  order  of  the  sixteenth 
class  of  Linnaeus,  a  genus  of  Malvacece  of  De  Candolle.  This  is  an  her- 
baceous plant,  the  seeds  of  which  are  sown  in  spring.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  one  or  two  feet,  and  is  of  a  hairy  nature.  The  leaves  are  pal- 
mate, having  five  or  seven  lobes,  and  are  arranged  alternately  on  the 
stem.  During  the  hot  season  flowers  spring  from  the  ends  and  axils  of 
the  branches.  The  corolla  has  five  petals,  and  is  more  than  two  inches 
in  diameter ;  it  is  of  a  pale-yellow  color,  with  a  dark-purple  blotch  at 
the  bottom  of  each  petal,  and  is  ephemeral.  These  flowers  are  mona- 


!68  AH  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

delphous  and  polyandrous.  The  pod  is  five-celled,  each  cell  containing 
many  seeds.  These  seeds  resemble  those  of  the  Ichibi  (Abutilon 
avicenn<z),  and  are  of  a  dark-gray  color.  The  root  is  conical,  and 
abounds  with  viscous  juice. 

The  Manufacture  of  Paper. — The  plants  Kozo  and  Gampi  are  cut 
into  lengths  of  about  three  feet,  are  then  steamed  in  a  huge  boiler,  in 
the  bottom  of  which  there  is  a  little  boiling  water.  After  this  the 
bark  is  peeled  off,  and  from  this  bark  the  outer  pellicle  is  then 
scraped.  The  bark  is  now  boiled  in  lye,  and  is  then  well  pounded  on 
stone  blocks.  After  this  the  pulp  is  mixed  with  a  certain  amount  of 
the  diluted  mucilage  of  the  root  of  the  tororo,  and  is  placed  to  steep 
in  a  wooden  tank.  When  it  has  remained  in  steep  a  sufficiently  long 
time  it  is  spread  out  into  sheets  by  means  of  a  sieve.  As  soon  as  the 
water  has  drained  off  from  this  paper,  each  sheet,  with  the  aid  of  a 
straw  brush,  is  transferred  to  boards  to  dry. 

Although,  according  to  locality  and  the  nature  of  the  paper  manu- 
factured, there  are  some  differences  in  the  details  of  manufacture,  still 
the  above  was  and  is  the  general  method  employed  in  making  it. 

The  following  are  the  principal  kinds  : 

Danshi :  Of  this  there  were  two  kinds,  smooth  and  corrugated. 

Hoshiyo  :  That  made  in  the  province  of  Yechizen  is  the  best. 

Sugihara  :  First  made  at  Harima. 

THE  JAPANESE  PENCIL,   OR  WRITING-BRUSH. 

The  Japanese  pencil  is  called  fumute,  or  fude,  the  latter  name 
being  most  commonly  used.  It  is  also  called  hananoki  (see  Yakumo- 
sho),  but  this  is  only  a  kind  of  poetical  name. 

The  origin  of  the  Japanese  pencil,  or  fude,  we  presume,  dates  from 
the  same  time  as  that  of  paper.  Pencils  were  at  first  made  by  Chinese 
immigrants.  In  the  "  Record  of  Surnames  "  we  find  the  surname  of 
Fude,  or  pencil ;  those  who  had  this  surname  being  the  descendants  of 
Yenshokoku  Yeimanko.  They  had  the  honor  to  receive  this  surname 
by  a  grant  from  the  emperor,  who  was  pleased  with  their  skill. 

At  a  later  time,  about  the  period  of  Taiho  (A.  D.  701-703),  ten  pen- 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  169 

cil-makers  began  to  be  employed  in  the  "  Board  of  Books  and  Writ- 
ings "  for  manufacturing  pencils  there.  Then,  pencils  were  made  of 
the  hairs  of  rabbits,  badgers,  and  deer.  Subsequently  there  was  a 
pencil-maker  called  Kohoshi.  It  is  said  that  he  made  a  number  of 
large  and  small  pencils,  which  he  presented  to  the  imperial  court. 

Manufacture, — The  process  of  manufacturing  the  Japanese  pencil 
is  as  follows :  The  hairs  of  certain  animals  being  placed  on  the  hand, 
are  sprinkled  with  "  pencil-powder,"  which  consists  of  the  ashes 
of  burned  rice-hulls,  and  which  is  exposed  for  sale  in  the  same 
shops  that  deal  in  the  hairs  for  pencils.  Then  the  hairs  are  rubbed 
with  both  hands,  cleansed  from  grease,  equalized  in  length,  and  ad- 
justed with  a  fine  brass  comb.  After  this  adjustment  the  hairs  are 
still  further  equalized  with  the  tongue  and  lips,  and  then  by  means  of 
a  decoction  of  Funori,  a  kind  of  sea-weed  used  for  starching,  etc.,  made 
to  adhere  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form  a  body  of  about  an  inch  and  a 
quarter  in  breadth,  the  thickness  varying  according  to  the  size  of  the 
pencils  to  be  prepared.  Then  the  hairs  are.  dried,  as  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing (Fig.  5). 


FIG.  5. 


If,  in  examining  these  hairs,  some  are  found  to  be  imperfect  or  in 
a  wrong  direction,  these  should  be  taken  out  by  means  of  the  point  of 
8 


1 70  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

a  knife.  The  mass  of  the  properly-adjusted  hairs  is  then  divided  or 
separated  into  parcels  of  the  size  or  form  of  a  pencil.  At  this  stage  of 
the  process,  shin,  or  a  paper  cone,  which  is  to  keep  together  the  hairs 
of  the  pencil,  is  made,  and  a  layer  of  hairs  (which,  however,  is  not  used 
in  the  case  of  inferior  kinds  of  pencils)  is  laid  around  the  paper  cone,  a 
little  above  its  point.  In  the  case  of  the  Japanese  pencils  used  during 
the  middle  ages,  half  their  body  was  wound  around  with  a  piece  of 
paper,  as  shown  in  the  following  (Fig.  6). 


FIG.  6. 


After  the  process  of  which  we  have  given  an  account,  the  hairs  are 
again  adjusted  with  the  mouth  and  collected  into  shape;  after  that, 
their  points  are  rubbed  repeatedly  with  the  back  of  the  blade  of  a  knife, 
to  put  the  hairs  in  order. 

This  process,  which  is  called  Kedsuri  or  Shitateru  (planing  or  smooth- 
ing down),  is  the  most  important  part  in  the  work  of  pencil-making. 
Thus  the  inner  layer  of  hairs  having  been  adjusted,  next,  the  exterior 
layer  of  hairs  is  to  be  laid  around  ;  a  quantity  of  hairs  which  is  required 
for  that  purpose  being  picked  out  by  means  of  a  knife,  and  combed 
well,  is  laid  around  the  pencil,  still  higher  up  than  the  inner  layer  ;  the 
upper  end  of  the  exterior  layer  of  hairs  is  then  fastened  with  a  hemp- 
thread,  one  end  of  which  is  inserted  in  the  pencil  stem  or  holder  with 
the  upper  ends  of  the  now  brush-shaped  hairs,  and  the  pencil  is  ready 
for  use. 

INKSTONE. 

The  inkstone,  called  in  Japanese  Sumisuri,  Suzuri,  or  Miru-ishi,  was 
invented  about  the  same  time  as  the  pencil.  At  first,  however,  ink- 
stones  were  mostly  made  of  earthen-ware,  good  inkstones,  properly  so 
called,  being  of  later  origin.  Thus,  for  instance,  those  in  use  at  the 
Daijokuah,  as  well  as  even  those  brought  to  the  imperial  palace,  were 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !7! 

all  of  earthen-ware.  Afterward,  it  appears,  a  little  before  the  periods 
of  Genko  (A.  D.  1321-1323)  and  Kemmu  (A.  D.  1334-1335),  the  true 
inkstone  was  coming  into  general  use  ;  and  it  is  at  about  the  same 
period  that  we  first  find  Saga-ishi,  Shiaku-o-ji-ishi,  and  Tosa-ishi  (stones 
very  valuable  for  the  inkstones),  held  in  great  estimation. 

Besides  the  above  stones,  we  have  many  other  kinds  of  which  the 
inkstone  can  be  made,  and  of  which  we  shall  presently  give  the 
names. 

Manufacture. — In  the  first  process  a  stone  is  cut  into  even  slabs  by 
two  persons,  who  sit  opposite  to  each  other,  with  an  instrument.  Then 
the  stone  thus  cut  up  is  polished  with  a  white  whetstone,  on  which  a 
quantity  of  sea-sand  is  spread  out.  The  "ink-pond,"  or  the  part 
of  the  inkstone  in  which  the  ink  is  kept,  is  cut  with  a  large  chisel,  to 
which  the  workman  applies  his  shoulder  in  working  it.  When  this 
process  is  nearly  finished,  and  the  "  ink-pond  "  is  formed,  it  is  again 
pared  with  the  hand-chisel,  and  then  polished  with  a  blue  whetstone. 
In  the  case  of  superior  kinds  of  inkstones,  the  inside  and  outside  of  the 
"  ink-pond,"  as  well  as  other  parts,  are  polished  with  a  whetstone  called 
Nagura,  and  with  a  small  stone,  with  which  the  workman  finishes  off 
the  hollow  parts. 

MATERIALS   FOR  INKSTONE. 

Tosa :  It  is  a  kind  of  marine  stone,  usually  containing  something 
like  copper  and  iron,  the  absence  of  which,  however,  is  a  requisite  for 
stones  of  best  quality. 

Shiaku-o-ji :  It  is  found  in  the  province  of  Tamba;  it  has  silvery 
veins  running  through  it  lengthwise.  The  ready  darkening  of  the  veins 
is  a  mark  of  the  inferior  quality  of  the  stone.  This  inferior  quality  is 
produced  from  some  newly-discovered  quarries,  and  cannot  be  com- 
pared with  that  which  comes  from  the  old  and  celebrated  quarries  of 
Tamba. 

Amebata :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Kai ;  there  are 
two  sorts  of  it,  respectively  called  Okuyama  and  Hashiyama,  the  former 
being  the  better  of  the  two. 


172  AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 

Hosoku :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Wakasa  ;  the  best 
kinds  are  hard  to  be  obtained.  It  is  sometimes  called  Takata-ishi,  and 
is  of  a  red  color. 

Tsukinowa  :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Yamashiro. 

Takao :  This  stone  comes  from  the  same  province. 

Takashima  :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Omi. 

Nikko-ishi ' :  This  stone  comes  from  the  Nikko  Mountain  ;  it  is  of  a 
jet-black  color,  and  the  best  material,  but  rather  hard. 

Sakiirakaiva  :  This  stone  comes  from  Numata,  the  province  of 
Kodzuke. 

Kansui:  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Hitachi.  There  is 
another  kind  resembling  this,  called  Shima  Kansui. 

Kuroyama  :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Mutsu ;  the 
hard  and  fine  quality  is  difficult  to  be  obtained. 

Ktnho-ishi :  This  stone  comes  from  the  province  of  Mikawa. 

Yoro :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Mino. 

Uchiyama-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Bungo ;  the  best 
sorts  of  it  are  exceedingly  rare. 

Takata :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Mimasaku ;  there  are 
some  very  old  inkstones  made  of  the  best  kinds  of  this  stone. 

Kamokawa-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Yamashiro. 

Takanokawa-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  same  province. 

Kagamt-isht :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Ise;  it  is  vulgarly 
called  Sasameno. 

Fut ami-is  hi  :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Ise ;  it  is  some- 
thing like  Shirahama  (a  kind  of  stone),  but  softer. 

Shira-ishi ' :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Higo. 

Shirahama-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Kii. 

Takahama  :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Hizen. 

Konoha-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Yechigo,  and  several 
other  places. 

Takayama-ishi ' :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Bingo. 

Akama :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Nagato. 

Manjiu-ishi :  This  comes  from  Iwaki. 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  173 

Shohoj i-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Rikuchiu;  it  is  of  a 
rather  rough  nature,  but  well  suited  to  rub  the  ink  on. 

Okatsu :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Ugo ;  it  is  black. 

Nobe-oka-ishi ' :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Hiyuga. 

Tamba  Kuro-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Tamba ;  it  is 
somewhat  like  Amabata  stone.  It  is  brought  from  some  newly-dis- 
covered quarries. 

Nagarekawa-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Kai ;  it  is  a 
sort  of  Amabata  stone,  being  of  a  purple  color. 

Fukazaiva-ishi :  This  conies  from  the  province  of  Shinano  ;  it  is  of 
the  same  kind  as  the  Amabata  stone. 

Tsukubaishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Hitachi ;  it  is  like 
Takashima-ishi. 

Busku  Kuro-iski :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Musashi. 

Ishimaki-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Mutsu  ;  it  is  of  a 
black  color. 

Kinsei-ishi :  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Kodzuke;  it  is  like 
the  stone  of  the  same  name  found  in  Liyobisan,  China. 

Kawagoi-ishi ':  This  comes  from  the  province  of  Musashi ;  it  is  of  a 
gray  color,  and  of  the  same  nature  as  that  produced  from  the  province 
of  Omi. 

JAPANESE   INK. 

The  origin  of  the  Japanese  ink  dates  from  the  same  period  as  that 
of  paper  and  the  pencil,  the  processes  of  making  them  all  having  been 
introduced  into  this  country  from  China. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  ink  used  in  public  or  government  offices 
was  manufactured  in  the  "  Board  of  Books  and  Writings,"  and  the  pro- 
cess of  making  it  was  the  same  as  that  which  we  use  at  the  present 
day.  At  later  periods,  Musa  ink,  made  in  the  province  of  Omi,  Kai- 
bara  ink,  made  in  the  province  of  Tamba,  as  well  as  Taihei  ink,  made 
in  the  province  of  Yamashiro,  were  very  noted  for  their  superiority  to 
others.  Again,  at  a  still  later  time,  lamp-black  ink  (i.  e.,  ink  made  of 
lamp-black)  was  invented  in  Nara,  the  southern  capital,  and  has  ever 
since  been  a  celebrated  article  of  production  of  that  place. 


174 


AN  OUTLINE  HISTORY  OF 


Manufacture  of  Ink. — The  material  for  the  ink,  whether  it  be 
lamp-black  or  so-called  pine-smoke,  i.  e.,  soot  obtained  by  the  imperfect 
combustion  of  pine-wood,  is  worked  into  a  proper  consistency  by  com- 
bining it  with  glue  and  water.  At  first,  the  lamp-black  or  pine-smoke 
which  is  thus  worked  with  glue  and  water  does  not  readily  come  into 
a  mass,  still  being  in  a  dry  state  and  separated  and  scattered — a  state 
which  indicates  the  proper  proportions  of  the  mixture  of  those  ingredi- 
ents. After  being  kneaded  repeatedly,  however,  it  comes  into  a  mass 
somewhat  like  dough.  This  process  is  performed  on  a  plank,  which  in 
winter  should  have  a  fire  below  it,  in  order  to  prevent  the  congelation 
of  the  glue.  When  the  material  has  been  worked  into  a  perfect  con- 
sistency, it  is  put  into  the  ink-mould,  which  is  made  of  wood,  and 
consists  of  two  parts,  one  being  called  the  higher  and  the  other  the 
lower,  and  is  pressed  by  a  heavy  stone  bearing  on  it,  or  by  a  press. 
It  depends  on  the  thoroughness  of  this  process- whether  the  figures 
on  the  surfaces  of  the  cakes  of  ink  stand  out  clearly  or  not.  After  this 
the  cakes  of  ink  are  taken  from  the  mould  and  put  in  a  mass  of  very 
slightly-moistened  ashes.  After  having  been  kept  in  the  moist  ashes 
for  four  hours,  the  cakes  are  transferred  to  a  mass  of  dry  ashes  for 
one  day ;  after  this,  the  ink  is  put  into  a  mass  of  perfectly  dry  ashes 
for  three  days,  at  the  expiration  of  which  it  is  taken  out  and  washed 
clean  with  cold  water.  After  having  been  dried  and  polished,  the  whole 
process  is  finished,  and  the  ink  ready  to  be  used. 

To  obtain  lamp-black,  lamps  are  placed  in  regular  order  on  a  shelf, 
and  are  covered  with  unglazed  porcelain  receivers.  The  lamp-black 
which  thus  collects  upon  the  receivers  is  regularly  scraped  off  from 
time  to  time  ;  if  too  much  time  were  allowed  to  pass  before  scraping  it 
off,  the  lamp-black  would  become  a  solid  mass,  and  be  useless. 

As  to  the  kind  of  oil  used  for  obtaining  lamp-black,  that  of  the  Sesa- 
mum  orientalis  is  the  best,  that  of  the  rape-seed  being  next. 

The  collecting  of  the  soot  of  pine-wood  used  in  manufacturing  ink 
is  performed  as  follows :  A  plastered  house  of  three  or  four  ken  (one 
ken  being  seventy-one  and  a  half  inches  English)  is  built,  in  which  par- 
titions are  made,  and  the  four  walls  of  which  are  pasted  over  with  some 


EDUCATION  IN  JAPAN.  !75 

kind  of  coarse  paper.  The  ground  is  paved  with  stone,  on  which  the 
resinous  boughs  of  the  pine  are  burned  after  having  been  split  into  slen- 
der pieces.  The  soot  which  collects  on  the  paper  is  scraped  off  in  due 
time. 

The  Engraving  of  Books. — The  first  engraving  of  books  took  place 
in  the  third  month  of  the  first  year  of  Hoki  (A.  D.  770),  when  "  Darani " 
(a  Buddhist  book  written  in  Pali  characters),  of  the  Hiakuman  Towers, 
was  engraved ;  but  since  then  we  do  not  hear  of  any  book  being  en- 
graved till  the  third  day  of  the  sixth  month  in  the  first  year  of  Kuangen 
(A.  D.  1243),  when  the  engraved  "Hokekiyo  "  (a  Buddhist  book)  was 
offered  to  the  Buddhist  gods  ;  next  to  it,  "  Sentakushu  "  (the  Buddhist 
book  of  the  Jodo  sect)  and  the  "  Confucian  Analects"  were  engraved 
one  after  the  other.  It  was  not  till  the  eighth  year  of  Genroku  (A.  D. 
1695)  that  any  book  was  printed  with  five  kinds  of  colors. 


APPENDIX. 


I.    CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  MOMBUSHO,  OR  JAPANESE 
DEPARTMENT   OF   EDUCATION. 

THE  Mombusho  is  a  department  of  the  Government  for  the  administration 
of  the  educational  affairs  of  the  empire.     Its  duties  are  : 

1.  To  manage  government  schools  and  colleges. 

2.  To  supervise  public  and  private  local  schools. 

3.  To  collect  and  diffuse  educational  information. 

The  organization  of  the  department  is  as  follows : 

Kio  (Minister  of  Education),  whose  duties  are  : 

1.  To  superintend  the  officials  and  the  business  of  the  department,  and  to 
administer  the  educational  affairs  of  the  empire. 

2.  To  propose  to  the  Government  measures  in  regard  to  education  ;  to 

nominate  for  appointment,  promotion,  and  dismissal,  all  officials  above 

and  including  the  seventh  rank  ;  and  to  appoint  or  dismiss,  of  his  own 

motion,  all  officials  below  the  seventh  rank. 
Tayu  (Senior  Vice-Minister  of  Education,  and 
Shoyu  (Junior  Vice-Minister  of  Education) : 

Whose  duties  are  to  assist  the  Minister  of  Education  in  discharging  his 

duties,  and,  when  required,  to  perform  the  duties  of  minister. 
Daijo  (First  Secretary), 
Gon-daijo  (Second  Secretary), 
Shojo  (First  Junior  Secretary),  and 
Gon-shojo  (Second  Junior  Secretary) : 

Whose  duties  are  to  conduct  the  business  of  the  department  under  the 

direction  of  the  minister,  and  to  preserve  and  keep  in  order  all  public 

documents. 


J?8  APPENDIX. 

Dairoku  (Chief  Clerk). 
Gon-dairoku  (Second  Chief  Clerk). 
Chiuroku  (Middle  Clerk). 
Gon-chiuroku  (Second  Middle  Clerk). 
Shoroku  (Junior  Clerk). 
Gon-shoroku  (Second  Junior  Clerk). 
Hissei  (Scribe). 
Seisho  (Miscellaneous  Business). 

Connected  with  the  department  of  Education  is  the  Bureau  of  Superin- 
tendence, called  the  Tokugakuyoku,  containing  the  following  officers : 

Dai-  Tokugaku  (Chief  Superintendent), 
Chiu-Tokugaku  (Second  Superintendent),  and 
Sho-Tokugaku  (Third  Superintendent): 

Whose  duties  are  to  superintend  educational  matters,  and  to  inspect  and 

cause  to  be  inspected  the  schools  under  the  department. 
Dai-Shigaku  (Ch'ief  Inspector), 
Chiu-Shigaku  (Second  Inspector),  and 
Sho-Shigaku  (Third  Inspector) : 

Whose  duties  are  to  inspect  and  supervise  the  educational  business  of  the 

several  school-districts. 
Dai-Shoki  (Chief  Clerk), 
Chiu-Shoki  (Second  Clerk),  and 
Sho-Shoki  (Third  Clerk) : 

Whose  duties  are  to  transact  the  business  of  the  office,  and  to  preserve 
and  keep  in  order  the  public  records. 

REGULATIONS   FOR  THE  TRANSACTION   OF   BUSINESS. 

The  business  of  the  department  is  divided  into  two  classes.  The  business 
of  the  first  class  is  transacted  by  the  minister  after  the  approval  of  the  Gen- 
eral Government.  The  business  of  the  second  class  is  conducted  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  minister,  who  is,  however,  responsible  for  all  the  business  both 
of  the  first  and  second  classes. 

Business  of  the  First  Class. — To  devise  and  establish  systems  of  educa- 
tion ;  to  make  and  revise  educational  regulations  ;  to  establish  school  taxa- 
tion ;  to  regulate  the  grants  of  money  to  local  school-districts  ;  to  establish 


APPENDIX. 


179 


government  schools  ;  to  send  officials  of  the  department  to  foreign  countries, 
etc. 

Business  of  the  Second  Class. — To  present  educational  measures  to  the 
General  Government ;  to  issue  notifications  concerning  the  business  of  the 
department ;  to  supervise  the  local  authorities  in  regard  to  educational  mat- 
ters ;  to  confer  academic  degrees  ;  to  regulate  the  disbursement  of  govern- 
ment grants  to  the  school-districts  ;  to  collect  books  and  apparatus  conducive 
to  the  progress  of  science  and  the  arts  ;  to  collect  and  diffuse  information  in 
regard  to  education  ;  to  summon  conventions  of  inspectors  of  school-directors, 
or  of  school-teachers  and  school-experts,  for  the  purposes  of  discussion  of  edu- 
cational questions  ;  to  send  students  to  foreign  countries  and  to  superintend 
the  same ;  to  engage  native  and  foreign  teachers,  and  to  regulate  their  sala- 
ries, etc. 

II.     CHRONICLE   OF   EVENTS   IN   THE   RECENT   HISTORY 
OF   THE   DEPARTMENT   OF   EDUCATION. 

AT  the  time  of  the  restoration  of  the  Government,  the  subject  of  educa- 
tion was  intrusted  to  an  Educational  Board,  which  administered  the  affairs 
connected  with  this  branch  of  the  Government  from  the  first  to  the  fourth  year 
of  Meiji  (A.  D.  1868-1871).  On  account  of  the  disturbances  caused  by  the 
civil  war  which  existed  in  the  country  in  1 868,  educational  matters  were  in  a 
very  unsettled  condition.  Many  of  the  school-buildings  had  been  occupied 
for  army-quarters,  and  the  medical  schools  and  hospitals  were  occupied  with 
the  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

In  November,  1868,  the  Foreign-Language  School,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished by  the  shogun's  government,  in  Yedo,  was  reopened  under  the  new 
Educational  Board.  Foreign  languages  were  taught  in  part  by  native  and  in 
part  by  foreign  teachers. 

In  December,  1868,  the  old  College  of  Confucius,  founded  by  the  shogun's 
government,  was  also  reopened,  under  the  name  of  Shoheiko.  It  was  about 
this  time  that  Yamanouchi  Yodo,  the  Daimio  of  Toza,  was  appointed  chief  of 
the  Educational  Board,  and  the  offices  of  secretary  and  second  secretary,  as 
well  as  professors  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  ranks,  were  created.  From 
this  time  the  Foreign-Language  School  and  the  Medical  School  and  hospital 
came  under  the  control  of  the  Educational  Board. 


jgo  APPENDIX. 

In  February,  1869,  the  publication  of  newspapers  was  placed  under  the 
charge  of  the  Educational  Board,  and  rules  therefor  were  issued,  and  in  May 
following  the  publication  of  books  was  in  like  manner  intrusted  to  it. 

In  June,  1869,  it  was  ordered  by  the  Government  that  the  Shoheiko  (Col- 
lege of  Confucius)  was  to  be  hereafter  called  Daigakko  (the  university),  and 
should  take  the  place  of  the  ancient  national  university  as  the  head  of  the 
educational  system.  The  offices  of  the  temporary  Educational  Board  were 
thereupon  abolished,  and  corresponding  ones  connected  with  the  university 
were  created. 

In  July,  1869,  several  of  the  professors  in  the  Confucian  college  and  the 
Foreign-Language  School  were  selected  as  members  of  the  Assembly  com- 
posed of  representatives  from  the  provincial  governments. 

In  October,  1869,  a  Bureau  of  Translation  was  created  in  the  Foreign- 
Language  School,  for  the  purpose  of  translating  and  compiling  text-books 
from  foreign  languages. 

In  December,  1869,  the  Foreign-Language  School  and  Medical  School 
were  ordered  to  be  called  respectively  the  South  College  and  North  College. 
At  the  same  time  several  new  offices,  both  of  administration  and  instruction, 
were  created,  the  chief  of  them  being  Daigaku-no-Betsto,  which  position  was 
held  by  Matsudaira  Shungaku,  Prince  of  Yechizen. 

In  February,  1870,  school-laws  in  relation  to  colleges,  high-schools,  and 
primary  schools,  were  proclaimed.  This  was  the  first  attempt,  after  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Government,  to  make  general  laws  in  regard  to  the  education  of 
the  country.  This  was  an  evidence  of  the  interest  manifested  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people  by  the  emperor  and  his  government. 

In  July,  1870,  it  was  ordered  that  each  of  the  provincial  governments 
should  select  one  or  more  pupils  who  were  promising  scholars,  to  be  sent  to 
the  Foreign-Language  School  to  be  educated  at  the  government  expense. 

In  August,  1870,  several  of  the  most  advanced  students  in  the  English 
and  French  sections  of  the  Foreign-Language  School  were  sent  abroad  to  be 
educated  in  Western  science  and  literature  at  the  government  expense  ;  and 
in  November  of  the  same  year  a  few  students  were  sent  from  the  Medical 
College  for  the  purpose  of  studying  medicine  in  Europe.  In  December  it 
was  further  ordered  that  all  the  students  studying  abroad,  whether  sent  by  the 
central  or  local  governments,  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  Educational 
Board. 


APPENDIX.  r8i 

In  January,  1871,  the  work  of  compiling  a  complete  English-and-Japanese 
dictionary  was  begun  under  the  Educational  Board. 

In  June,  1871,  orders  were  given  to  the  Medical  College  to  send  medical 
officers  into  the  several  parts  of  the  country,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  control 
for  the  college  of  all  matters  connected  with  medicine. 

During  this  same  month  the  most  important  step  was  taken  in  the  progress 
of  education.  It  was  deemed  by  the  Government  that  the  education  of  the 
people  was  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  intrusted  to  a  distinct  department 
of  the  Government  ;  hence,  in  the  place  of  the  old  Educational  Board,  a  De- 
partment of  Education  (Mombusho)  was  organized.  All  powers  relating  to 
educational  affairs  were  vested  in  this  department.  Elementary  and  higher 
instruction,  the  management  of  schools  and  colleges,  were  intrusted  to  its 
charge.  Veto  Shimpei  was  created  Vice-Minister  of  Education,  and  most  of 
the  old  officers,  both  in  the  Foreign-Language  and  Medical  Schools,  were  con- 
tinued in  their  positions  under  the  Department  of  Education.  The  old  quar- 
ters of  the  Educational  Board  were  used  by  the  new  department.  The  au- 
thority of  the  department  was  extended  over  the  schools  of  Osaka  and  at 
Nagasaki,  as  well  as  over  the  students  studying  abroad.  Matters  connected 
with  medical  education  and  the  public  health  were  in  like  manner  put  under 
its  control. 

In  this  same  month  (June,  1871)  Oki  Takato  was  appointed  Minister 
of  Education.  The  students  who  had  been  sent  abroad  by  the  several  pro- 
vincial governments  were  now,  on  account  of  the  change  of  these  govern- 
ments, left  to  the  control  of  the  Department  of  Education  ;  and,  as  they 
were  more  numerous  than  the  department  could  properly  support,  it  was  de- 
termined to  recall  them  and  send  them  out  under  new  regulations. 

In  August,  1871,  the  elementary  and  high  schools  in  Tokio  were  placed 
under  the  direct  charge  of  the  Department  of  Education.  This,  however, 
was  only  temporary,  as,  after  the  issue  of  the  code  of  education  in  1872,  they 
were  restored  to  the  control  of  the  Tokio  local  government. 

It  was  in  this  month  that  Veto  Shimpei,  who  had  been  Vice-Minister  of 
Education,  was  relieved  from  duty,  and  appointed  a  senator  of  the  first  rank. 

In  September,  1871,  a  Bureau  for  the  Compilation  of  Text-Books  was  cre- 
ated in  the  Department  of  Education.  New  regulations  were  at  this  time 
made  for  the  Foreign-Language  and  Medical  Schools.  The  mixed  system 
of  Japanese  and  European  instruction  was  modified,  so  that  all  the  scholars 


1 82  APPENDIX. 

were  taught  according  to  the  foreign  method  and  by  competent  teachers.  It 
was  also  determined  that  the  method  of  appointing  students  by  the  provincial 
governments  be  abolished,  and  that  hereafter  all  persons  might  be  admitted 
to  the  schools  on  passing  a  satisfactory  examination.  It  was,  moreover,  de- 
termined, in  order  to  encourage  scholarship,  that  promising  students  who  ob- 
tained a  high  standing  should  be  sent  abroad  to  complete  their  courses  of  study. 

In  October,  1871,  a  Bureau  of  Vaccination  was  established  in  the  Tokio 
Medical  School. 

In  November,  1871,  Tanaka  Fujimaro,  then  chief  secretary  of  the  De- 
partment of  Education,  was  sent  to  America  and  Europe  in  connection  with 
the  embassy,  as  a  commissioner  to  investigate  and  report  upon  educational 
matters  in  foreign  countries.  A  report  was  made  on  his  return,  giving  in 
detail  his  observations,  which  has  been  printed  and  published. 
(  In  February,  1872,  a  building  for  a  female  school  in  Tokio  was  completed 
i  and  opened  under  the  charge  of  the  Department  of  Education.  Up  to  this 
time  the  education  of  women  had  not  received  the  same  government  support 
as  that  of  men,  and  therefore  this  first  step  in  providing  better  facilities  was 
an  important  event  in  the  history  of  education.  This  school  was  designed  to 
provide  education  both  in  Japanese  and  English. 

In  April,  1872,  a  library  was  opened  at  the  seat  of  the  College  of  Confu- 
cius, and  the  public  admitted  free. 

In  May  of  the  same  year  the  Tokio  Normal  School  was  established  and 
opened.  It  was  designed  to  train  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools,  which, 
under  the  new  orders  of  the  department,  were  to  be  taught  in  accordance 
with  more  approved  methods.  The  students  admitted  to  the  Normal  School 
were  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  Government. 

In  August,  1872,  the  new  educational  laws  were  proclaimed  throughout 
Japan.  These  laws  are  still  in  force.  The  old  schools  maintained  under  the 
direction  of  the  local  governments  were  by  these  laws  to  be  replaced  by  oth- 
ers modeled  after  the  regulations  of  the  department,  and  pursuing  definite 
courses  of  instruction. 

T*he  sum  of  two  million  yens  was  appropriated  by  the  General  Govern- 
ment for  the  expenses  of  the  Department  of  Education,  and  for  the  educa- 
tional institutions  under  its  charge. 

In  October,  1872,  a  Bureau  of  Superintendence  was  organized  in  Tokio, 
to  inspect  and  supervise  the  schools. 


APPENDIX.  183 

Oki  Takato  was  appointed  Minister  of  Religion  in  addition  to  the  office 
of  Minister  of  Education,  and  the  offices  of  the  Department  of  Education 
were  removed  to  the  same  building  as  was  occupied  by  that  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Religion. 

In  November,  1872,  an  educational  convention  was  held  in  the  buildings 
of  the  department,  composed  of  the  educational  officers  of  the  local  govern- 
ments. They  discussed  the  school-laws  and  their  practical  working.  A  re- 
sult of  this  convention  was  the  determination  by  the  department,  in  order  to 
give  the  people  greater  facilities  for  education,  hereafter  to  appropriate  certain 
sums  of  money  to  the  local  governments,  in  proportion  to  the  population,  to 
be  used  for  the  support  of  elementary  schools.  The  quota  fixed  at  that  time 
was  nine-tenths  of  a  cent  per  capita. 

In  February,  1873,  the  department  issued  orders  to  the  local  governments 
in  regard  to  the  divisions  of  the  grand-school  districts  into  middle  and  ele- 
mentary school  districts,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  number  of  elementary 
schools  already  established,  and  the  regulations  and  mode  of  maintenance 
of  the  same. 

The  Government  made  its  semi-annual  appropriation  to  the  Department 
of  Education  for  school  purposes,  being  at  the  reduced  rate  of  one  million 
three  hundred  thousand  yens  per  year. 

The  chief  secretary,  Tanaka  Fujimaro,  sent  out  as  commissioner  of 
education,  returned  to  Japan,  and  was  soon  after  appointed  to  the  office  of 
Shoyu,  or  junior  vice-minister. 

The  publication  of  the  gazette  of  the  department  was  begun.  It  was 
designed  to  contain  accounts  of  the  systems  and  progress  of  education,  and 
such  information  in  regard  to  foreign  and  native  education  as  might  be  of  value. 

In  April,  1873,  the  following  alterations  were  announced  in  regard  to  the 
divisions  of  the  grand-school  districts,  and  the  principal  educational  seats  in 
them  :  The  grand-school  districts  were  reduced  from  eight  to  seven,  and  the 
boundaries  readjusted.  In  the  first  grand-school  district,  Tokiowas  made  the 
principal  seat  of  learning ;  in  the  second,  Aichi ;  in  the  third,  Osaka ;  in  the 
fourth,  Hiroshima  ;  in  the  fifth,  Nagasaki ;  in  the  sixth,  Niigata ;  and  in  the 
seventh,  Miyagi. 

Oki  Takato,  the  Minister  of  Education,  was  made  one  of  the  Cabinet 
Council,  and  therefore  ceased  to  be  minister,  whereupon  the  junior  vice-min- 
ister Tanaka  became  acting  chief. 


1 84  APPENDIX. 

The  Tokio  Foreign-Language  School  was  separated  into  two  parts  :  the 
first  to  be  called  the  Tokio  Kaisei  Gakko,  and  to  be  organized  as  a  university, 
where  general  science  and  literature,  as  well  as  special  courses  in  law,  chemi- 
cal technology,  engineering,  polytechnic  science,  and  mining,  were  to  be 
pursued ;  the  second  part  to  continue  as  a  school  of  foreign  languages,  and 
to  provide  instruction  in  the  English,  French,  German,  Russian,  and  Chinese 
languages. 

In  May  and  June,  1873,  educational  officers  were  sent  from  the  depart- 
ment to  visit  and  inspect  the  schools  in  the  first,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh  grand-school  districts. 

In  July,  1873,  the-  Tokugakuyoku,  or  Bureau  of  Superintendence,  was 
established  in  the  Department  of  Education,  the  business  of  which  was  the 
inspection  of  the  schools  under  the  department. 

In  August,  1873,  two  additional  normal  schools  were  founded,  one  at 
Osaka,  and  one  at  Miyagi,  the  latter  of  which,  however,  was  not  opened  until 
some  time  later. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  better  regulations  in  regard  to  physicians  in 
the  country,  orders  were  issued  that  each  local  government  should  report  to 
the  Department  of  Education  the  names  and  number  of  physicians,  and  also 
other  information  concerning  medical  matters  within  its  jurisdiction.  A  med- 
ical laboratory  was  also  established  in  the  Tokio  Medical  College. 

Dr.  David  Murray,  of  the  United  States,  having  arrived  in  Japan,  entered 
upon  his  duties  as  superintendent  of  educational  affairs. 

Among  other  amendments  in  regard  to  the  grade  of  officers  and  instruc- 
tors the  following  academic  ranks  were  established,  viz. :  Hakase  (Doctor), 
Gakushi  (Master),  and  Tokugeyioshi  (Bachelor),  to  be  conferred  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education. 

In  the  same  month  the  new  buildings  were  completed  for  the  Kaisei 
Gakko  (University  of  Tokio),  and  were  opened  with  appropriate  cere- 
monies by  his  majesty  the  emperor,  accompanied  by  high  officers  of  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

During  this  month  her  majesty  the  empress  visited  the  University  of 
Tokio  and  the  Tokio  Female  School,  and  witnessed  the  exercises  of  the 
students. 

It  was  determined  from  this  time  that  the  students  who  had  been  sent 
abroad  at  the  expense  of  the  Government  should  be  recalled,  with  a  view  to 


APPENDIX.  !85 

send  others  better  qualified,  and  selected  from  those  who  had  been  educated 
in  the  home  institutions.  Orders  were  therefore  sent  for  their  recall  at  the 
earliest  time. 

In  January,  1874,  Kido  Takiyoshi  was  appointed  Minister  of  Education  in 
addition  to  his  office  of  cabinet  councilor. 

In  February  of  this  year  a  department  of  industrial  arts  was  established 
in  the  University  of  Tokio.  It  was  to  be  conducted  in  the  Japanese  language, 
and  to  give  instruction  in  the  chemical  and  mechanical  arts. 

Four  additional  normal  schools  were  founded  by  the  Department  of  Edu- 
cation, viz.,  at  Aichi,  Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  and  Niigata  ;  and  in  the  month  fol- 
lowing foreign-language  schools  were  established  in  Aichi,  Hiroshima,  Niigata, 
and  Miyagi ;  thus  in  each  of  the  seven  grand-school  districts  there  were  now  a 
normal  school  and  a  foreign-language  school. 

In  March,  1874,  the  Tokio  Female  Normal  School  was  established  by  the 
Department  of  Education.  Her  majesty  the  empress  had  indicated  her  wish 
to  contribute  the  sum  of  five  thousand  yens  from  her  private  purse  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  the  education  of  her  sex  in  the  empire.  She  therefore 
gave  this  amount  to  the  department  toward  the  establishment  of  the  Female 
Normal  School.  Accordingly,  buildings  were  erected,  and  in  October  of  the 
following  year  were  dedicated  by  the  empress  in  person. 

A  Bureau  for  the  Examination  of  Medicines  was  established  in  the  city  of 
Tokio  under  the  Department  of  Education. 

In  May,  1874,  Kido  Takiyoshi  resigned  the  office  of  Minister  of  Educa- 
tion. 

In  September  Tanaka  Fujimaro  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  Tayu,  or 
Senior  Vice-Minister  of  Education. 

The  arrangement  of  bureaus  in  the  department  was  modified  as  follows : 
I.  Bureau  of  Schools.  2.  Bureau  of  Finance.  3.  Bureau  of  Publication. 
4.  Bureau  of  Copyright  and  Press  Laws.  5.  Bureau  of  Public  Health. 

The  Medical  School  and  Hospital  at  Nagasaki,  which  had  been  under  the 
control  of  the  Department  of  Education,  was  transferred  to  the  local 
government. 

In  December,  1874,  all  the  foreign-language  schools  except  that  at  Tokio 
were  constituted  English-language  schools.  That  at  Tokio  was  divided  into 
two  schools,  the  one  an  English-language  school,  the  other  a  foreign-language 
school  for  instruction  in  French,  German,  Russian,  and  Chinese. 


1 86  APPENDIX. 

In  January,  1875,  the  amount  appropriated  by  the  Government  to  the 
Department  of  Education  was  fixed  at  two  million  yens  per  year,  and  the 
sum  contributed  by  the  department  to  the  local  governments  for  the  support 
of  elementary  eduction  was  fixed  at  seventy  thousand  yens. 

A  Bureau  for  the  Examination  of  Medicine  was  in  February  established  at 
Kioto,  and  in  March  at  Osaka. 

The  museum,  library,  and  botanical  garden,  which  had  hitherto  been 
under  the  joint  control  of  the  Department  of  Education  and  the  Department 
of  Home  Affairs,  were  transferred  to  the  superintendence  of  the  former  ;  and 
in  June  the  Bureaus  of  Public  Health  and  of  Copyright  and  Press  Laws 
were  transferred  to  the  Department  of  Home  Affairs. 

In  July,  1875,  three  officers  were  sent  out  to  America  to  investigate  the 
methods  of  conducting  normal  schools.  From  the  highest  class  also  in  the 
University  of  Tokio,  students  were  sent  out  to  continue  their  education  in 
special  branches,  viz.,  nine  in  America,  one  in  France,  and  one  in  Germany. 

The  semi-annual  appropriation  from  the  General  Government  to  the  De- 
partment of  Education  was  made  on  the  scale  of  one  million  seven  hundred 
thousand  yens  per  annum. 

In  November  of  this  year  the  constitution  and  limitations  of  the  author- 
ity of  the  Department  of  Education  were  revised  and  proclaimed  by  the  Gen- 
eral Government. 


APPENDIX. 


187 


III.     LIST   OF   EMPERORS. 


NAME. 

Date  from 

o 

NAME. 

Date  from 

-9 

¥ 

Jimmu  

I 
79 

112 
'SO 

185 
268 
370 
446 

5°3 
33 

629 

B.  C.  660 

58J 

548 
510 

47S 
392 
290 
214 

*57 
97 

A.  D.  29 

1519 
1537 
'545 
1553 
1558 
1591 
1607 
1628 
1630 

ifi45 
1647 
1672 
1677 
1697 
1706 
1729 
1733 
1747 
1769 
1784 
1802 
1816 
1819 
1826 
1829 
1841 
1846 

1859 
1871 
1882 
1893 
1903 
1907 
1926 
1936 
1948 

1959 
1961 
1968 
1979 

859 

877 
885 

888 
898 
931 
947 
968 
970 
985 
987 
IOI2 
1017 
1037 
1046 
1069 
1073 
-1087 

1108 
1124 
1142 
1156 

"59 
1166 
1169 

1181 
1186 
1199 

i.  ii 

1222 
1233 
1243 
1247 
I2&0 
1276 
1288 
1299 

X3°i 
1308 

1319 

Suisci  

Yozei  

Annei  

Itoku  

Uta  

Ko-an  

Korei  

Kogen  

Rezei    

Suinin  

Keiko  

Seimu  

791 
852 
861 

131 
192 

Go  Ichi-jo  

Jingo  (empress)  

Go  Rezei  

Ojin  

930 

973 
1060 
1065 
1071 
1113 
1116 
1140 
ii45 
1148 
1159 
1167 
1194 
1196 

1200 

270 

3'3 
400 

4°5 
411 

453 
456 
480 
485 
488 
499 
5°7 
534 
S36 
54° 

172 

Richu  

SI  i  uti  ik  11  

Go  Shirakawa  

Nijo  

Kenso  

Rokujo  

Antoku  

Keitai..  . 

Gotoba  

Tsuchi-mikado  

Senka  

Juntoku  

Chukiyo  

Bitatsu 

Yojo  

1246 
1248 
1253 
1289 

586 

588 

593 
629 
642 

Go  Saga  

Go  Fukakusa  

Go-uta  

Fushimi  

Kotoku               . 

I305 
I3'S 
1328 

I332 

*333 
135° 
I3S7 
1368 
1375 
1384 
1409 
1419 
I42S 
143° 
1442 
1466 
1470 
1484 
1494 

IS" 

645 
655 
668 
672 

673 
690 
697 
708 
7i5 
724 

749 
759 
765 
770 
782 
806 
810 
824 
834 
851 

Go  Nijo  

Tenji 

Hanazono  

Kobun  

Go  Daigo  

lenmu  

SOUTHERN   DYNASTY.1 

1909 
2028 

I322 
1368 

Go  Kameyama  

NORTHERN   DYNASTY. 

1996 
2009 

2012 
2032 
2043 

1336 
1349 
1352 
1372 

1383 

Koken  (empress)  

Junnin  

Shuko 

Koken  (reenthroned)  

Kuanmu  

Go  Komats  

3053 

a°73 
2089 
2125 

1393 
1413 
1429 

1465 

Montoku... 

Go  Tsuchi-mikado  .  .  . 

1  There  were  two  dynasties  during  the  period  (1336-1392  A.  D.),  which  were  reunited  in 
the  Emperor  Go  Komats. 


i88 


APPENDIX. 


LIST  OF   EMPERORS. — (Continued.} 


NAME. 

Pntc  from 

Jut  nun. 

Ptite. 
Christian 
Era. 

NAME. 

|| 

&i& 

0 

Go  Kashiwabara  

2161 

2187 

1501 

Naka-mikado  

2370 

1710 

Omasaki  

2218 

Go  Yozei  

1^87 

Go  Midzunowo  ;  

2272 

1612 

Go  Momosono  

2431 

1771 

Ninko 

1663 

1867 

1687 

-  A 

1876 

IV.     LIST   OF   YEAR-PERIODS. 


NAMK. 

Data  of  Beginning 
from  the 
Emperor  JImmn. 

Data  of  Beginning 
from  Christian  En. 

NAME. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  tho 
Emperor  Jiinmu. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  Cbriitlau  Era. 

Taikua  
Hakuchi  

I3°S 
1310 

1332 
1333 
134<5 
1355 
1.357 

A.  D.  645 

650 
672 
673 
686 

695 
697 

Yencho.  
Shiohei  

1583 
1591 
1598 
1607 
1617 
1621 
1624 
1628 
1630 

l633 
1636 
1638 
1643 
1645 
1647 
1649 
1650 
i655 
1659 
1664 
1672 
1677 
1681 
1684 
1688 
1697 
1700 
1704 
1706 

1713 
1718 

1725 
1729 
1734 
1737 

923 
931 
938 
947 
957 
961 
964 
968 
970 

973 
976 
978 
983 
985 
987 
989 
990 
995 
999 
004 

OI2 
017 
021 
024 
028 
037 
040 
044 
046 
053 
058 
065 
069 
074 
077 

Hakuho       

Ten  Riyaku  

Tentoku  

Taikua.  

Wowa  

Taicho     

Koho  

Taiho  

I364 
1368 

1375 
1377 
1384 
1389 
1409 
1417 
1425 
1427 

*43° 
1441 
1442 
1466 
1470 
1484 
1494 
1508 
15" 
ISM 
1517 

704 
708 
7iS 
717 
724 
729 
749 
757 
765 
767 
770 
781 
782 
806 
810 
824 
834 
848 
851 
854 
857 
8^0 

Tenroku  

Wado  

Hoki  

Vozo                       ... 

Jinkj  

Chotoku  

Hoki  

Choho  

Yenriyaku  

Chowa  

Chian  

Tencho  

Kasho  

Nin-ju  
Saiko    ..                          ..   .. 

Chokiu  

Tenan  

Tenki  

1537 
1545 
'549 
1558 
1561 

877 
885 
889 
898 
901 

Kohei                    

Yenktu         

Shiotai  

Ycngi  

oriyaku  r  .  ... 

APPENDIX. 
LIST  OF  YEAR-PERIODS. — (Continued.') 


189 


NAME. 

Data  of  Beginning 
from  tba 
Emptror  Jlmmu. 

Data  of  Beginning 
from  C'lirUtUu  Kra. 

NAME. 

D»to  of  B«Klnulng 
from  tin' 
Emptror  Jluinm. 

u 

II 

11 

Yeiho  
Otoku  

1741 
1744 
1747 
*754 
1756 
»757 

1759 
1764 
1766 
1768 
1770 
»773 
1778 
1780 
1784 
1786 
1791 

1081 
084 
087 

°94 
096 

°97 
099 

*% 
1  06 

108 
no 

113 

1x8 

120 
124 
126 

Kuan  ki  

1889 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1903 
1907 
1909 
1916 
1917 
1919 
1920 
1921 
1924 

I93S 
1938 
1948 
'953 
1959 
1962 

'963 
1966 
1968 
1971 
1972 
'977 
1979 
1981 
1984 
1986 
1989 
1991 
1994 

1229 
1232 

1233 

"34 
1235 
1238 
1239 
1240 
1243 
1247 
1249 
1256 
1237 
1259 
1260 
1261 
1264 
1275 
1278 
1288 
1293 
1299 
1302 

1303 
1306 
1308 
13" 
1312 

'31/ 
1319 
1321 
1324 
1326 
1329 
i33i 
1334 

Tenpuku           . 

Kaho                            

Yeicho  

Shotoku  .  . 

Choii  

Kajo  

Hoji 

Tenyei  

Yeikiu  

Genyei  

Shoka  

Tenji  

Daiji  

Kocho 

Tensho  

Chosho  

1792 
1795 
1801 

132 

*35 

Kenji 

Hoyen  

Ko-an 

Yeiji  

Koji  

1802 

Tenyo  

1804 
1805 
iSn 
1814 
1816 
1819 
1820 
1821 
1823 
1825 
1826 
1829 
1831 

1835 
1837 
1841 
1842 
1845 
1856 
1859 
1861 

144 
MS 
151 
*54 
156 

xs 

160 
161 

•g 

165 
1  66 
169 
171 
'75 
i77 
181 
182 
185 
190 
199 

Ninpei  

Kinju  

Yenkei 

Heiji  

Ocho 

Oyei  

Yeiman  

Ninan  

Kareki 

Sho-an  

Genko                 

ty°  

Kenmu  

Yowa.  

SOUTHERN  DYNASTY.1 

1996 

2000 
2006 
2030 
2032 
2035 
3041 
2044 

1336 
1340 
1346 
1370 
1372 
1375 
1381 
1384 

Kenkiu  

Kokoku                    . 

Shoji  

1864 
1866 
1867 
1871 
1873 
1879 
1882 
1884 
1885 
1887 

204 
206 
207 

211 
213 
219 
222 
224 
225 
227 

Kenyei  

Tenju  

Kenriyaku  

Genchu  

NORTHERN  DYNASTY. 

1998 
2002 
2005 

2010 

1338 
1342 

1345 
1350 

Teiwa          

Antei  .  .  . 

Kuan  wo  

1  There  were  two  dynasties  during  the  time  (1336-1399  A.  D.),  and  separate  year-periods 
were  used. 


190 


APPENDIX. 


LIST  OF  YEAR-PERIODS. — (Continued,} 


NAME. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  the 
Emperor  Jlmmu. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  Chrlitian  Era. 

NAME. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  the 
Emperor  Jimn-.u. 

Date  of  Beginning 
from  Christiau  Era. 

2016 

1356 

2275 
2284 
2304 
2308 
2312 
23'5 
2318 
2321 
2333 
234J 
2344 
2348 
2364 
2371 
2376 
2396 
2401 
2404 
2408 
2411 
2424 
2432 
2441 
2449 
2461 
2464 
2478 
2490 
2504 
2508 
2514 
2520 
2521 
2S24 
2525 
2528 
2536 

1615 
1624 
1644 
1648 
1652 
I^5S 
1658 
1661 
*673 
1681 
1684 
1688 
1704 
1711 
1716 
1736 
1741 
J744 
1748 

I7^ 
1764 

1772 
1781 
1789 
1801 
1804 
1818 
1830 
1844 
1848 

1854 
1860 
1861 
1864 
1865 
1  863 
1876 

Owa 

Toil 

O-an 

2028 
2035 
2039 
2041 
2044 
2047 
2049 
2050 
2054 
2088 
2089 
2IOI 
2IO4 
2109 

1368 
1375 
1379 
1381 

1384 
1387 
1389 
1390 
1394 
1428 
1429 
1441 

M44 
1449 

Koreki  

Yeitoku  

Shitoku    ....      .  ... 

Kakei 

Tenwa  

Oyen 

Tenroku  

Seicho  

Hokio    

Hotoku  

2115 
2117 
2I2O 
2126 
2127 
2129 
2147 
2149 
2152 

2161 
2164 
2181 

1455 
'457 
1460 
1466 
1467 
1469 
1487 
1489 
1492 
1501 
1504 

Horelu  

Chokio  

Yentoku. 

Miowo  
Bunki  

Bunsei  
Tenpo  
Koka  

Taiyei  

Kioroku  

2188 

1528 

Tenbun  
Kojt  

2192 

2215 
2218 

1532 

'ss;. 
1558 

Manyci  

Genki 

2233 

2252 
2256 

J573 
I592 
I596 

Bunroku  
Keicho  

Meiji,  ninth  year  

APPENDIX.  ,9, 


V.  CATALOGUE  OF  ARTICLES  EXHIBITED  BY  THE  JAPAN- 
ESE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  AT  THE  INTER- 
NATIONAL EXHIBITION,  1876. 

i.  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY. 

1.  Manuscript  Outline  History  of  Japanese  Education.     English  transla- 
tion. 

2.  Manuscript  History  of  Japanese  Literature,  Science,  and  Arts.   Abridged 
English  translation. 

3.  Chronicle  of  Events  in  the  History  of  the  Department  of  Education. 
English  translation. 

2.  EDUCATIONAL  LAWS  AND  NOTIFICATIONS. 

1.  Code  of  Education.     Issued  in  1872. 

2.  Collection  of  Educational  Notifications,  1871-1875. 

3.  Notifications  to  local  authorities  and  to  government  schools,  1873-1875. 

4.  Constitution  of  the  Department  of  Education,  and  regulations  for  the 
transaction  of  business.     English  translation. 

3.  EDUCATIONAL  REPORTS. 

1.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Department  of  Education. 

2.  Circulars  of  the  Department  of  Education  for  1873,  1874,  and  1875. 

3.  Bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Education  for  1874  an<i  l&75- 

4.  Tables  of  Educational  Statistics  for  1873  and  1874.     English  transla- 
tion. 

5.  Report  of  Tanaka  Fujimaro  upon  Education  in  Foreign  Countries. 

4.  REGULATIONS  OF  GOVERNMENT  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Calendar,  etc.,  of  the  University  of  Tokio. 

2.  Regulations  of  the  Tokio  Medical  College. 

3.  Regulations  of  the  English-Language  Schools  at  Tokio,  Aichi,  Osaka, 
Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  Niigata,  and  Miyagi. 

4.  Regulations  of  the  Normal  Schools  at  Tokio,  Aichi,  Osaka,  Hiroshima, 
Nagasaki,  Niigata,  and  Miyagi. 

5.  Regulations  of  the  Tokio  Female  School. 

6.  Regulations  of  the  Tokio  Female  Normal  School. 


192 


APPENDIX. 


5.  CHARTS,  MAPS,  BOOKS,  AND  APPARATUS  FOR  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Five  Charts  for  teaching  Language. 

2.  Six  Charts  for  teaching  Arithmetic. 

3.  Four  Charts  of  Object-Lessons  and  Gymnastics 

4.  Five  Species  of  Writing-Books. 

5.  Elementary  Reading  and  Spelling  Books. 

6.  Text-books  on  Elementary  and  General  Geography. 

7.  Text-books  on  Elementary  Arithmetic. 

8.  Outline  of  the  History  of  Japan. 

9.  Outline  of  General  History. 

10.  Drawing-Books. 

11.  Outline  Map  and  Map  of  the  World. 

12.  Five  Charts  on  Natural  History. 

13.  Balloon  Globe. 

14.  Drawing-Slates. 

15.  Varieties  of  the  Japanese  Counting-Frame. 

16.  Varieties  of  School  Slates. 

17.  Lacquered  Slates. 

1 8.  School  Desks  and  Chairs. 

19.  School  apparatus  manufactured  at  the  Department  of  Arts  and  Manu- 
factures of  the  University  of  Tokio,  viz. :  Polariscope,  hydraulic  ram,  elliptical 
compass,  glass-cutting  machine,  Newton's  plates,  plane  mirrors,    model  of 
steam-engine,  pyrometer,  conjugate  mirrors,  sonometer,   tuning-fork,    force- 
pump,  suction-pump,  Magdeburg  hemispheres,  air-pump,  Archimedes's  screw, 
reaction  wheel,  hydraulic  press,  Cartesian  diver,  inclined  plane,  pulleys,  wheel 
and  axle,  lever,  concave  mirror  and  convex  mirror,  double  cone  and  inclined 
plane,  rocking-toy,  collision-balls,  camera-obscura,  centrifugal  machine,  adhe- 
sion plates,  parallelogram  of  forces,  gyroscope,  orrery,  wedge — accompanied 
by  a  list  with  prices. 

6.  EXAMINATION-PAPERS  OF  GOVERNMENT  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Examination-Papers  of  the  University  of  Tokio. 

2.  Examination-Papers  of  the  Tokio  Foreign-Language  School. 

3.  Examination-Paper  of  the  English- Language  Schools  at  Tokio,  Aichi, 
Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  Osaka,  Niigata,  and  Miyagi. 


APPENDIX. 


193 


4.  Examination-Papers  of  the  Normal  Schools  at  Aichi,  Osaka,  Hiroshima, 
Nagasaki,  Niigata,  and  Miyagi. 

5.  Examination-Papers  of  the  Tokio  Female  School. 

6.  Examination-Papers  of  the  school  in  Kumagai  Ken. 

7.  KINDERGARTEN  MATERIAL. 

The  collection  under  this  head  embraces  forty-one  different  articles.  They 
consist  of  boxes  of  letters,  cards,  puzzle-frames,  etc. ;  of  pictures,  play-cards, 
easy-readers,  simple  games,  shadow-pictures,  hand-balls,  and  children's  toys, 
together  with  four  boxes  of  Kindergarten  gifts. 

8.  LIBRARY,  MUSEUM,  AND  BOTANICAL  GARDEN. 

1.  Photographs  of  the  Tokio  Public  Library. 

2.  Historical  Account  of  the  Tokio  Public  Library. 

3.  Regulations  and  Catalogue  of  the  Tokio  Public  Library. 

4.  Historical  Account  of  the  Tokio  Museum. 

5.  Map  of  the  Botanical  Garden. 

6.  Historical  Account  and  Catalogue  of  the  Botanical  Garden. 

9.  DESIGNS  AND  PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Photographs  and  Plans  of  the  University  of  Tokio. 

2.  Plans  of  the  Tokio  Medical  College. 

3.  Plan  of  the  Tokio  Foreign-Language  School. 

4.  Photographs  and  Plans  of   the  English-Language  Schools   at  Tokio, 
Aichi,  Osaka,  Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  and  Niigata. 

5.  Photographs  and  Plans  of  the  Normal  Schools  at  Tokio,  Aichi,  Osaka, 
Hiroshima,  Nagasaki,  Niigata,  and  Miyagi. 

6.  Plans  of  the  Tokio  Female  Normal  School. 

7.  Photographs  of  the  Tokio  Female  Normal  School. 

8.  Photographs  and  Plans  of  Schools  in  Kioto,  Tokio,  Tsuruga,  Gifu,  Osa- 
ka, and  Hamamatsu. 

9.  Model  of  the  Lecture-room  of  the  old  College  of  Confucius,  at  Tokio. 

10.  Plan  of  the  old  College-grounds. 

11.  Photographs  of  the  Lecture-room. 

12.  Photographs  of  the  Memorial  Temple  of  Confucius,  belonging  to  the 
College. 

9 


I94  APPENDIX. 

13.  Photographs  of  the  Statues  of  Confucius  and  Four  of  his  Disciples,  in 
the  Memorial  Temple. 

14.  Plan  of  the  Ashikaga  College  at  Kanazawa. 

15.  Plans  of  the  Buildings  and  Grounds  of  the  old  Colleges  at  Okiyama, 
together  with  an  Historical  Account. 

1 6.  Plans  of  the  Buildings  and  Grounds  established  by  the  Daimio  of  Mito. 

10.  BOOKS,  MAPS,  ETC. 

Dictionaries. 

1.  Koyekikuai  Giokuhen,  a  dictionary  of  arts. 

2.  Gorui  Setzuyo-Shin,  a  dictionary. 

3.  Goi,  a  dictionary. 

4.  English-and-Japanese  dictionary. 

Histories. 

5.  Dai-Nipponshi :  History  of  Great  Japan,  in  one  hundred  volumes.  - 

6.  Ruijukokushi. 

7.  Nippongaishi :  History  of  Japan,  in  twelve  volumes. 

8.  Kinseijijou  :  Historical  Narrative  of  Modern  Japan,  in  seven  volumes. 

9.  Jingu  Seitoki :  History  of  the  Lineal  Descendants  of  the  Empress  of 
Japan  from  the  Empress  Jingu,  six  volumes. 

10.  Bukonempio  :  Chronicle  of  the  Tokugawa  Government,  eight  volumes. 

11.  Shogun  Kafu  :  Historical  Account  of  the  Several  Dynasties  of  Sho- 
guns,  seven  volumes. 

12.  Hankuanpu  :  History  of  the  Japanese  Daimios,  twenty  volumes. 

13.  Naigai-ichiran  :  Facts  in  Japanese  History,  Domestic  and  Foreign. 

Maps. 

14.  Map  of  Japan  from  practical  surveys,  published  by  the  Department 
of  Education. 

15.  Records  of  the  practical  survey  of  Japan. 

16.  New  Map  of  the  World,  with  accompanying  explanations. 

17.  Map  of  the  Provinces  and  Districts  of  Japan. 

18.  Map  of  Japan,  showing  the  different  roads. 

19.  Large  Map  of  Japan,  by  Nakafuru  Teikio. 

20.  Map  of  the  Grand- School  Districts  of  Japan. 


APPENDIX.  I95 

21.  Map  of  the  Grand-School  Districts  of  Japan,  with  the  names  in  Eng- 
lish. 

22.  Pictures  of  Celebrated  Mountains. 

23.  Maps  of  the  Cities  of  Tokio,  Kioto,  and  Osaka. 

24.  Maps  of  the  Harbors  of  the  Open  Ports,  Yokohama,  Kobe,  Nagasaki, 
Niigata,  and  Hakodate. 

25.  Maps  published  by  the  Hydrographic  Bureau  of  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment, to  wit,  Kamaisi  harbor,  Bay  of  Notsuke,  Miyaka  harbor,  Sutsu  harbor, 
Otaru  harbor,  Hakodate  harbor,  Simoda  harbor,  Bay  of  Tokio,  Bay  of  Goyoi, 
Straits  Tsugaru,  Sazara  harbor,  Yamagawa  harbor,  and  chart  of  the  inland  sea 
of  Satsuma  and  Osumi. 

26.  Maps  of  Yayeyama  Island,  Nemuro    harbor,  Sappo  harbor,   Unten 
harbor,  Island  of  Amami. 

27.  Map  of  the  School-Districts  of  the  Cities  and  Provinces. 

Laws,  Ceremonies,  etc. 

28.  Sinritsukorei  and  Kaiteiritsurei :  new  and  improved  criminal  code. 

29.  Kenporuihen  :  collection  of  constitutional  laws  published  by  the  De- 
partment of  Justice,  forty-eight  volumes. 

30.  Yengisiki :  book  of  ceremonies,  sixty-one  volumes. 

Old  Medical  Books. 

31.  Isinho,  thirty  volumes. 

32.  Didoruijuho,  ten  volumes. 

33.  Gimiho,  three  volumes. 

34.  Kenshuroku. 

35.  Yokuahitsuroku,  ten  volumes. 

36.  Riodigawa,  two  volumes. 

37.  Kuishi,  three  volumes. 

38.  Seikushoku. 

39.  Manyu-Zasshi,  two  volumes. 

Botanical  Books. 

40.  Yamato-honzo,  twenty-five  volumes. 

41.  Ko-yamato-honzo,  twelve  volumes. 

42.  Honzo  Yaku  Meibiko. 

43.  Honzo  Tsukuan,  fifty-five  volumes. 


196  APPENDIX. 

44.  Somoku  Bengi,  four  volumes. 

45.  Honzo  Wamei,  two  volumes. 

Books  of  Verses,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

46.  Dakuan  Roeishin,  four  volumes. 

47.  Manyo  Wakashin,  twenty  volumes. 

48.  Rikikashin,  two  volumes. 

49.  Ruidai  Soyashin,  twelve  volumes. 

50.  Kochobun  Ruimeikazekku,  three  volumes. 

51.  Kocho  Meikashisho,  nine  volumes. 

52.  Kokinshin  Tokagami,  six  volumes. 

53.  Meirinkashin,  five  volumes. 

Books  of  Prose,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

54.  Honcho  Bunsai,  fifteen  volumes. 

55.  Fuso  Shomeishin,  three  volumes. 

56.  Kinsei  meika  bunsho,  eight  volumes. 

Japanese  and  Chinese  Styles  of  Writing. 

57.  Eight  books,  showing  different  kinds  of  writing,  consisting  in  all  of 

forty  volumes. 

Books  of  Music. 

58.  Twenty-one  volumes  on  music,  ancient  and  modern. 

Biographies  of  Celebrated  Persons. 

59.  Fifty-four  volumes,  consisting  of  biographies  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
heroes  and  sages. 

Books  concerning  Natural  History  and  Agriculture. 

60.  One  hundred  and  fourteen  volumes,  descriptive  of  the  agriculture  and 
the  natural  history  of  Japan. 

61.  Tables  of  botanical  classification,  published  by  the  Department  of 
Education. 

62.  Tables  showing  the  strength  of  Japanese  timber,  published  by  the 
University  of  Tokio,  from  practical  experiments. 

Almanacs. 

63.  Almanac  for  the  fifth  year  of  Ansei. 

64.  Almanacs  for  the  fourth  and  sixth  years  of  Meiji. 


APPENDIX.  197 

65.  Solar  Almanac  for  the  eighth  year  of  Meiji. 

66.  Solar  and  Lunar  Almanac. 

Old  Model  Books  of  Writing  for  Children. 

67.  I-ro-ha,  numerals  and  sentences. 

68.  Writing-books,  showing  the  modes  of  writing  family  names,  first  let- 
ters of  names,  different  names  of  provinces,  the  different  directions  in  Yedo, 
and  various  commercial  expressions. 

69.  Books  showing  the  styles  of  writing  letters,  letter-writing  for  girls, 

etc. 

Lectures  and  Treatises. 

70.  Rika  Nikka,  Journal  of  Physics,  published  by  the  Department  of 
Education,  twenty-four  volumes. 

71.  Nikko  Kibun,  daily  lectures  published  by  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, eleven  volumes. 

72.  Lectures  of  Nishimura  Shigeki  before  a  Private  School,  nine  volumes. 

73.  Journal  of  the  Meirokusha,  a  society  of  scholars,  forty-one  numbers. 

74.  Journal  of  the  Tokio  Medical  College. 

75.  Records  of  Medical  Operations  by  the  Tokio  Medical  College,  eleven 
volumes. 

76.  A  Complete  Medical  Treatise  by  the  Tokio  Medical  College,  four  vol- 
umes. 

Old  Arithmetical  Books. 

77.  Seiho  Jinkoki,  by  Bunkaido. 

78.  Daizen  Ginkoki,  by  Hasegawa  Zenyemon  and  Yamamoto  Yasunosin. 

79.  Sanpo  Sinsho,  by  Hasegawa  Zenyemon  and  Chiba  Yuhichi. 

80.  Sampo  Kiuseki  Tsuko,  by  Hasegawa  Zenyemon  and  Uchida  Hango, 

five  volumes. 

Catalogues  of  New  Books. 

81.  List  of  Publications  for  the  Fourth  Year  of  Meiji  (1871). 

82.  Lists  of  Publications  for  the  Sixth  and  Seventh  Years  of  Meiji  (1873- 

1874). 

83.  List  of  New  Publications. 

ii.  NEWSPAPERS. 

1.  Historical  account  of  newspapers. 

2.  Mosiogusa,  part  thirty-two. 


198 


APPENDIX. 


3.  Yenkin  Shimbun,  twenty-one  copies. 

4.  Chiugai  Shimbun,  four  copies. 

5.  Kosi  Zappo,  ten  copies. 

6.  Naigai  Sinpozenki,  seven  copies. 

7.  Naigai  Sinpo,  forty-four  copies. 

8.  Nichiyo  Shimbun,  seven  copies. 

9.  Tokio  Nichi  Nichi  Shimbun  for  March,  1875. 

10.  Yokohama  Mainichi  Shimbun  for  Jun»,  1875. 

11.  Akebono  Shimbun  for  June,  1875. 

12.  Hachi  Shimbun  for  May,  1875. 

13.  Yomi-uri  Shimbun  for  May,  1875. 

14.  Nisshin  Shinjishi  for  June,  1875. 

15.  Hirakana  Yeiri  Shimbun,  illustrated,  for  September,  1875. 

16.  Saifu  Shimbun  for  January,  1876. 

17.  Makoto  Shimbun,  six  copies. 

1 8.  Kanoyomi  Shimbun,  fourteen  copies. 

19.  Hananomi  Yako-onna  Shimbun,  sixteen  copies. 

12.  INSTRUMENTS,  APPARATUS,  AND  LITERARY  MATERIAL. 
Medical  Instruments,  Modern. 

1.  A  collection  of  instruments  used  for  modern  surgery,  made  in  Japan, 
consisting  of  microscopes,  eye-instruments,  ear-instruments,  specula,  galvano- 
caustic  apparatus,  curved  dressing-tins,  etc.,  etc.,  in  all  consisting  of  twenty- 
seven  varieties. 

2.  One  box  amputating-instruments,  seventy  kinds. 

3.  One  box  surgical  instruments,  twenty-one  kinds. 

4.  One  set  of  dental  instruments,  three  kinds. 

5.  Electric  explorer  for  gunshot-wounds. 

6.  Splints,  three  varieties. 

Medicines  and  Medical  Instruments,  Ancient. 

7.  Medical  chest  with  medicines  and  instruments,  with  directions  for  use. 

8.  One  hundred  and  eighty-four  varieties  of  old  Japanese  and  Chinese 
medicines,  colleeted  by  the  Tokio  Medical  College. 


APPENDIX.  I99 

Measuring-Instruments. 

9.  Five  varieties  of  protractor. 

10.  Three  varieties  of  quadrant. 

11.  Sun-dial  furnished  with  compass,  and  other  sun-dials. 

12.  Mariner's  compass,  circumferenters'  compasses. 

13.  Scales  of  wood  and  brass,  calipers,  measuring-chains,  bamboo  scales, 
metre-scales,  surveyors'  scales,  etc. 

14.  Instruments  for  measuring  dry  and  liquid  substances. 

15.  Clock,  pendulum,  barometer,  etc. 

1 6.  Balances. 

Globes. 

17.  Large  globe,  by  Hashitsume  Kuanichi,  Tokio. 

1 8.  Medium-sized  globe,  by  the  same. 

19.  Small  globe,  by  Matsui  Tadatosi. 

Ancient   Writing-Instruments. 

20.  Writing-table. 

21.  Inkstone-box,  accompanied  with  ink,  pens,  water-pot,  pen-holder,  etc. 

22.  Table,  gold-lacquered  with  cherry-tree  on  a  pear-colored  ground. 

23.  Inkstone-box,  gold-lacquered  with  cherry-blossoms,  accompanied  with 
a  silver  water-pot. 

24.  Pen-box,  gold-lacquered  with    pine-tree  and   monkeys  on    a  black 
ground. 

25.  Literary  box,  gold-lacquered  with  pine-tree  and  long-tailed  birds. 

26.  Paper  box,  gold-lacquered  with  pine-tree  and  the  plant  tachibana. 

27.  Inkstone-box,  lacquered    with   pine-tree   and   tachibana,  with    pen- 
holder, knife,  ink-holder,  awl,  and  water-pot. 

28.  Book-shelf,  gold-lacquered  with  snow-figures  and  ivies. 

29.  Writing-table,  with  two  drawers. 

30.  Large  inkstone,  with  wooden  stand. 

31.  Inkstone,  with  cover  and  stand. 

32.  Ivory  pen-box,  crystal  pen-box,  crystal  ink-rest,  crystal  washing-pot, 
crystal  pen-rest. 

33.  Pocket  inkstone,  box,  knife,  awl,  etc. 

34.  Pocket  red  inkstone-box. 


200  APPENDIX. 

35.  Portable  ink-cases. 

36.  Newspaper-holders. 

A  rithmetical  Counting-Frames. 

37.  Abacus,  with  twenty-five  sliding  wires. 

38.  Abacus,  made  of  oak,  with  twenty-one  wires. 

39.  Abacus,  of  black  persimmon,  with  fifteen  wires. 

40.  Abacus,  after  the  European  style. 

41.  Pocket  paper  abacus. 

Pencils  or  Brushes. 

42.  Six  varieties  of  pencils  manufactured  in  Bizen. 

43.  Ten  varieties  of  pencils  manufactured  in  Shinano. 

44.  Six  varieties  of  pencils  manufactured  in  Tokio. 

Paper. 

45.  Eighty-one  varieties  of  paper  manufactured  in  Japan,  including  plain 
writing-paper,  heavy  paper,  gold  and  silver  paper,  fancy  paper  for  poetry,  etc. 

Pen-holders. 

46.  Twenty-four  styles  of  pen-holders,  including  plain  bamboo,  tortoise- 
shell,  gilt  and  lacquered,  etc. 

Inks. 

47.  Nineteen  varieties  of  ink  in  hard  cakes,  like  India-ink. 

Books  for  Memoranda  and  Accounts. 

48.  Twenty-one  varieties  of  books,  partly  in  the  ancient  style,  and  partly 
bound  and  ruled  in  the  modern  style. 

13.  PAINTING  AND  PAINTING-INSTRUMENTS. 

1.  Pictures  illustrative  of  medical  science,  by  Kondo  Shobi,  Tokio  Medi- 
cal College,  twenty  sheets. 

2.  Picture  showing  the  mode  of  refining  gold  and  silver  in  the  Sado  Mines, 
by  Kitatsume  Yukei. 

3.  Picture  of  football,  three  sheets. 

4.  Picture  of  Bingono  Samuro,  by  Kikuchi  Yosai  (modern). 

5.  Picture  of  a  farm-house,  by  Takahisa  Aigan  (modern). 

6.  Picture  of  a  pine-tree,  by  Chinzan  (modern). 


APPENDIX.  201 

7.  Picture  of  Gengi,  by  Kano  Shosenin  (modern). 

8.  Picture  of  musical  dance,  by  Sumiyoshi  Naiki  (modern). 

9.  Picture  of  first  attacking  warriors  on  the  river  Uji,  by  Kano  Isenin 
(modern). 

10.  Picture  of  flowers,  birds,  and  man  (modern). 

11.  Picture  of  woman  (modern). 

12.  Picture  of  flowers,  birds,  grasses,  and  trees  (modern). 

Raised  Pictures. 

13.  Tablet  representing  the  plucking  of  tea-leaves. 

14.  Tablet  of  a  plum-tree  with  orioles. 

15.  Tablet  of  an  elephant. 

16.  Tablet  of  the  battle  of  Okeha  Sama. 

17.  Tablet  of  Kusunoki  (an  ancient  general)  parting  with  his  son. 

18.  Tablet  of  a  farm-house. 

19.  Tablet  of  the  poetess  Komachi  washing  a  leaf  of  a  book  of  poems. 

20.  A  fan  representing  the  poet  Yukihira. 

21.  A  fan  representing  the  poetess  Chiyo. 

22.  A  fan  representing  the  dance  of  Chiyo. 

23.  A  fan  representing  the  poet  Tosihira. 

24.  A  fan  representing  the  Bonaderi,  a  kind  of  dance. 

25.  A  fan  representing  a  trades-woman. 

Lacquered  Pictures. 

26.  Tablet  of  Jingukuogu. 

27.  Tablet  of  Kato  Kiyomasa,  an  ancient  hero. 

28.  Tablet  of  Kuanou,  a  Chinese  general. 

29.  Tablet  of  the  sago-palm,  with  frogs. 

30.  Tablet  of  a  falcon. 

31.  Tablet  of  Fugiyama. 

32.  Treatise  on  lacquer-painting,  by  Sakakibara  Yosino,  Tokio. 

33.  Translation  of  the  above,  by  Takahashi  Korekiyo,  Tokio. 

Instruments  for  Drawing  and  Painting. 

34.  Twelve  varieties  of  drawing-instruments  for  geometrical  drawing. 

35.  One  box  containing  painting-instruments  and  paints,  in  all  scventy- 
ci<'ht  articles. 


202  APPENDIX. 

36.  Instruments   for  lacquer-pictures,   consisting   of  pencils,  whetstones, 
charcoal,  lacquer,  etc.,  in  all  twenty-three  different  articles. 

Engraving  and  Engraving- Instruments. 

37.  Specimens  of  wood-engraving,  plain  and  colored. 

38.  Lithographic  pictures. 

39.  Engraving  upon  copper. 

40.  Table  for  wood-engraving. 

41.  Box  of  instruments  for  wood-engraving,  brushes,  mallets,  etc. 

42.  Wooden  blocks  for  engraving  Chinese  or  Japanese  books,  blocks  on 
which  are  engraved  the  Japanese  syllabary,  flowers,  and  birds. 

43.  Instruments  for  printing,  consisting  of  brushes  for  colored  inks,  stand 
for  moistening  paper,  inks  of  different  varieties,  etc. 

14.  PHOTOGRAPHS. 

1.  Photographs  taken  by  Uchida  Kuichi,  Tokio,  viz.  :  Yenriokuwan,  Im- 
perial Seaside  Resort ;  Imperial  Garden  in  Kioto  ;  Tombs  of  the  Tokugawa 
Family,  Tokio  ;  Views  of  the  Gates  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  Tokio  ;  Views  of 
Temples,  Bridges,  etc.,  in  Tokio  ;  Views  in  Nagasaki,  Yokohama,  Kobe,  and 
Osaka. 

2.  Photographs  taken  by  Shimidzu  Tokoku,  viz. :  Views  of  the  Imperial 
Palace  ;  Views  of  Temples,  Gates,  Buildings,  Bridges,  etc.,  in  Tokio. 


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